THE  DAWN 
AMERICAN  HISTORY 

IN 

EUROPE 


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WILLIAM  L,  NIDA 


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THE    DAWN    OF   AMERICAN    HISTORY 
IN    EUROPE 


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THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

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THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA    Ltd 

TORONTO 


THE  DAWN  OF 

AMERICAN    HISTORY 

I  N    EUROPE 


BY 

WILLIAM    LEWIS    NIDA,   Ph.B. 

SUPERINTENDENT   OF   SCHOOLS,    RIVER    FOREST,    ILLINOIS 

AUTHOR    OF   "THE   STORY    OF    ILLINOIS   AND    ITS    PEOPLE,' 
AND   "AB,   THE   CAVE   MAN" 


THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 
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All  rights  reserved 


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Copyright,  1912, 
By  THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  October,  1912.     Reprinted 
July,  1913. 


.,..-.*»*  CTtTh- 


NorfoaolJ  Press 

J.  8.  Cushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


;  ♦    -'. 


0£- 


PREFACE 

Eight  years  ago  the  author  began  giving  to  the  pupils 
under  his  supervision  the  benefit  of  a  European  histori- 
cal background  before  introducing  them  to  their  texts 
in  American  History.  That  the  wider  historical  horizon 
greatly  strengthened  their  later  grasp  of  the  history  of  our 
own  country  has  been  both  evident  and  gratifying. 

The  available  texts  having  been  found  unsatisfactory 
in  many  ways,  the  author  resolved  to  try  his  hand,  and 
had  covered  a  part  of  the  ground  before  the  Report  of  the 
Committee  of  Eight  of  the  American  Historical  Associa- 
tion was  brought  to  his  attention.  Slight  alterations  in 
his  plans  have  made  them  conform  in  general  to  the  ex- 
cellent recommendations  of  that  Committee. 

Since  no  judgment  of  a  text  is  as  searching  and  final 
as  that  formed  from  actual  use  in  the  classroom,  neither 
labor  nor  expense  has  been  spared  in  making  this  test. 
The  pages  of  the  following  work  were  first  stenciled  on 
the  typewriter,  and  with  much  labor  more  than  a  hundred 
copies  of  each  page  were  run  off  on  the  duplicator.  These 
were  collected  in  books  with  notebook  covers  and  placed 
in  the  hands  of  about  a  hundred  sixth^grade  pupils  in  our 
own  schools  and  in  selected  classes  of  neighboring  Chicago 
suburbs.  The  author  not  only  taught  a  class,  but  closely 
observed  the  use  of  his  chapters  in  the  hands  of  a  number 
of  superior  history  teachers.  This  experience  with  the 
children  coupled  with  the  invaluable  suggestions  of  those 

510806 


vi  PREFACE 

teachers,  made  possible  great  improvement  in  the  second 
writing  of  the  manuscript. 

Only  those  who  have  undertaken  to  squeeze  the  history 
of  twenty  centuries  into  one  short  text,  can  comprehend 
fully  the  difficulties  encountered.  Many  interesting  sub- 
jects had  to  be  eliminated  in  order  that  space  might  be 
afforded  to  make  the  remaining  narrative  live  and  dramatic. 

The  aim  has  been,  above  all  things,  to  tell  the  story  in 
such  a  way  that  the  pupil  may  readily  see  how  one  event 
led  to  another,  for  even  very  young  children  enjoy  the 
tracing  of  cause  and  effect  when  the  subject  matter  is  put 
before  them  in  a  proper  manner.  The  problems  and  diffi- 
culties encountered  and  overcome  by  mankind  in  its 
upward  progress  have  been  kept  in  the  foreground,  stimu- 
lating the  mind  of  the  child  to  thought  and  judgment, 
and  forcing  into  the  background  the  mere  memory  facts. 

The  contents  of  this  volume  is  largely  the  story  of  the 
achievements  of  the  Teutonic  peoples  as  they  gathered  up 
and  wove  together  the  chief  threads  of  modern  civilization. 
To  the  gifts  of  Greece  and  Rome  and  the  Christian  church, 
the  Teutons  added  their  own  supreme  contributions;  and 
through  the  dark  ages  they  gradually  assimilated  these 
elements,  thereby  raising  themselves  to  the  position  of 
leadership  in  Europe.  It  was  mainly  the  daughter  nations 
of  these  Teutonic  peoples  that  planted  European  civiliza- 
tion upon  American  soil.  This  explanation  is  offered  for 
introducing  the  children  at  once  to  the  old  Teutons  and 
for  treating  the  Greeks  and  Romans  in  later  chapters. 

The  author  desires  to  express  his  deep  gratitude  to  those 
splendid  teachers  who  have  tried  out  the  text  in  their 
classes.  The  questions  appended  to  the  chapters  are 
largely  those  of  Miss  Alice  Louise  Davis,  an  unusual 
teacher  of  history,  as  she  used  the  chapters  from  day  to 


PREFACE  vii 

day  with  her  pupils  in  the  River  Forest  schools.  To  the 
author's  wife  is  due  the  credit  of  polishing  off  many  rough 
edges  and  of  aiding  in  that  irksome  task  of  putting  the 
manuscript  in  form  for  publication. 

Our  hearty  thanks  are  tendered  the  following  publishers  : 
Messrs.  Scott,  Foresman  &  Co.  for  permission  to  use  the 
illustrations  from  Harding's  '  Middle  Ages  "  that  appear 
on  pages  2,  S,  13,  157,  and  273;  Messrs.  Ginn  &  Co.  for 
the  illustration  on  page  26,  taken  from  Atkinson's  "  Euro- 
pean Beginnings  of  American  History  "  ;  Messrs.  Allyn  & 
Bacon  for  the  map  on  page  23,  which  is  taken  from  West's 
"  Ancient  History"  ;  and  Messrs.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  for 
the  cuts  on  pages  29,  225,  and  265,  which  are  taken  from 
Bourne  &  Benton's  "  Introductory  American  History." 

WILLIAM   LEWIS   NIDA. 

River  Forest,  September,  191 2. 


CONTENTS 


I.  Our  German  Forefathers     . 

II.  Rome  conquering  the  World 

III.  How  the  Romans  Lived 

IV.  Barbarians  destroying  the  Empire 
V.  The  Teutons  at  School  in  the  Empire 

VI.  The  Monasteries 

VII.  England  and  the  Saxons 

VIII.  Alfred  the  Great  and  the  Danes 

IX.  The  Beginning  of  France     . 

X.  Feudalism 

XI.  Castle  Life     ..... 

XII.  How  the  People  Lived 

XIII.  Commerce  in  the  Dark  Ages 

XIV.  Mohammed  and  the  Moors   . 
XV.  The  Crusades  .... 

XVI.  Results  of  the  Crusades 

XVII.  The  Growth  of  France 

XVIII.  The  Coming  of  the  Northmen     . 

XIX.  Winning  English  Liberty 

XX.  The  Rise  of  Spain 

XXI.  Marco  Polo  and  the  East   . 

XXII.  Prince  Henry  and  the  Portuguese 

XXIII.  Columbus  and  the  New  World    . 

XXIV.  Race  to  the  Indies 
XXV.  The  Spaniards  in  America     . 

XXVI.  Rise  of  the  Protestants 

ix 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 

XXXII 


The  Revolt  of  the  Netherlands 

The  Fall  of  Spain 

The  French  in  America 

The  Dutch  at  New  Amsterdam 

English  Settlement  of  America 

Conclusion 


PAGE 

329 
34o 
348 
356 
360 

365 


MAPS 

FULL-PAGE   MAPS 

PAGE 

Roman  Empire  {Colored)  ....        between  28  and  29 

Alfred's  England  {Colored) facing     129 

Palestine,  Showing  the  Routes  of  the  Crusaders 
Spain  in  the  Days  of  Isabella  {Colored)     . 
The  First  Voyage  Around  the  World 
French  Explorations  .         .  . 

European  Claims  in  North  America  at  the  Time  of  the  Found- 
ing of  the  Last  English  Colony  {Colored)   .         .         facing    365 


MAPS   IN   TEXT 

Roman  Dominion  and  Dependencies 23 

Map  of  Africa 277 


•  215 
facing  260 

.  304 

•  354 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Departure  of  Columbus  on  His  Western  Voyage 


A  Village  of  the  Teutons  . 

Roman  Soldiers  Marching 

Emperor  Augustus   . 

German  Homes 

Teutons  Crossing  the  Rhine 

Arms  of  the  Teutons 

German  Bodyguard 

A  Part  of  the  City  of  Rome  (Restored) 

Hannibal  Crossing  the  Rhone  . 

Temples  of  the  Gods  at  Athens  (Restored) 

Caesar,  the  Greatest  of  the  Romans 

A  Portion  of  the  Roman  Wall 

Cross-section  of  a  Roman  Road 

A  Roman  Bridge 

Triumphal  Procession  in  the  Sacred  Way,  Rome 

Roman  Fleet  in  the  Harbor 

Arch  of  Constantine 

The  Fates 

Victory    .... 

A  Roman  Mosaic  Pavement 

A  Roman  Wall  Painting  . 

Reading  a  Roman  Book    . 

An  Old  Roman  School 

Ruins  of  the  Aqueducts,  Rome 

Interior  of  the  Coliseum   . 

In  the  Arena    . 

A  Roman  Dining  Room    . 

The  Chariot  Race    . 

Irene  and  Plutus 

Constantinople  and  the  Bosporus 


Frontispiece 


xiv  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

A  Roman  Goddess 61 

Alaric  in  Athens       .         .         .         . 62 

Victory  of  Samothrace 63 

The  Tomb  of  Emperor  Hadrian  at  Rome          ....  67 

Temple  of  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva,  Rome  (Restored)          .  69 

Ruins  of  the  Roman  Forum 71 

The  New  Appian  Way     .                  73 

St.  Peter's,  Rome 80 

St.  Benedict 88 

Cloister  of  the  Monastery 89 

Plan  of  an  Abbey 90 

A  Monk  at  Work ...  92 

Melrose  Abbey .         .         -95 

Saxon  Ships 100 

The  Saxon  Tool  and  Weapon 103 

The  Residence  of  a  Saxon  Nobleman 1 1 1 

The  Viking  Ships 117 

The  Fiord  in  Norway       .         . 119 

Ancient  Boat  found  in  Denmark       ...         .         .         .         .  121 

The  Wise  Men  of  Alfred's  Time 123 

King  Alfred 125 

Weapons  of  the  Danes 126 

A  Viking  Ship  and  an  Ocean  Liner   .         .         .         .         .         .130 

Charlemagne 136 

An  Old  Castle 140 

Tickell  Castle  , 142 

The  Oath  of  Fealty  to  the  Young  Lord 143 

Plan  of  a  Castle 147 

The  Drawbridge 148 

The  Vigil 151 

A  Knight  in  Armor 153 

Castle  of  Falaise 155 

A  Sport  of  the  Day 157 

A  Tournament 159 

Conferring  Knighthood  on  the  Field  of  Battle  ....  160 

Manor  House  and  Village 164 

Manor  House 167 

Costumes  of  That  Day 169 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


xv 


Conway  Castle 

A  Ship  of  the  Middle  Ages 

An  Old  Street  in  Worcester 

The  Merchants'  Hall  at  Bruges 

Old  English  Town  Hall     . 

Camels  of  the  Desert 

A  Barren  Desert 

Jerusalem  as  it  Appears  To-day 

The  Court  of  Lions,  Alhambra 

Arabian  Horses 

Minaret  of  Mosque  of  the  Sultan  Kalaun,  Cairo 

Pilgrims  Entering  Bethlehem  on  Christmas  Day 

Peter  the  Hermit  Preaching  to  the  Crusaders 

A  Knight  of  the  Cross      . 

Jerusalem  from  the  Mount  of  Olives 

Richard  I  in  Palestine 

The  Sacking  of  Jerusalem 

Ancient  Ships 

Mariner's  Compass 

A  Dutch  Windmill 

Norman  Soldiers 

Westminster  Abbey 

A  Farmhouse  formerly  a  Monastery 

Early  Cannon 

Venetian  Ships 

Marco  Polo      .... 

Finding  the  Latitude 

Henry  the  Navigator 

Christopher  Columbus 

Toscanelli         .... 

Columbus  at  the  Court  of  Spain 

Columbus'  Fleet 

The  Landing  of  Columbus 

Vasco  da  Gama  and  the  Zamorin 

Magellan  .... 

Cortez      .  . 

Balboa  Sighting  the  Pacific 

De  Soto's  Discovery  of  the  Mississippi 


xvi  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

St.  Augustine,  Florida 317 

The  Vatican 319 

Petrarch  ....'. 321 

Gutenberg's  Press 324 

Martin  Luther          .........  325 

Philip  II  of  Spain 329 

Duke  of  Alva 331 

William  the  Silent 333 

Dikes  of  Holland 336 

Queen  Elizabeth 341 

The  Meeting  of  the  English  Ships  with  the  Spanish  Armada      .  343 

The  Sovereign  of  the  Seas 344 

Cartier 349 

Champlain 351 

Quebec  in  the  Early  Days 351 

Champlain  Defeating  the  Iroquois 353 

Half  Moon  on  the  Hudson 357 

The  Dutch  in  New  Amsterdam 358 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh 361 

The  Lost  Colony 362 

John  Smith 363 

The  Ruins  of  Jamestown 364 


THE    DAWN    OF   AMERICAN    HISTORY 
IN    EUROPE 


THE  DAWN  OF  AMERICAN 
HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

CHAPTER  I 
OUR  GERMAN  FOREFATHERS 

Roving  Barbarians.  —  Many  hundred  years  ago,  in  those 
northern  countries  of  Europe  that  we  know  as  Norway, 
Sweden,  and  Germany,  lived  a  race  of  rude  barbarians. 
For  a  long  time,  no  one  knows  how  many  centuries,  these 
hardy  people  had  been  roaming  about  over  Europe  in  tribes, 
carrying  their  families  in  rough  oxcarts  and  driving  their 
herds  of  cattle  and  swine.  The  men  were  bold  and  power- 
ful, and  they  loved  nothing  so  much  as  a  battle.  Most 
of  their  time  was  spent  in  fighting  and  in  plundering  other 
tribes. 

Our  Forefathers.  —  But  we  must  think  kindly  of  these 
fierce  barbarians,  for  they  were  relatives  of  many  of  us  —  our 
far-away  forefathers.  Not  only  were  they  our  ancestors, 
but  they  were  also  the  ancestors  of  Englishmen,  of  the 
Dutch,  the  Swedes  and  Norwegians,  and  of  the  modern 
Germans.  In  fact,  there  is  not  a  nation  in  all  western 
Europe  to-day  that  does  not  boast  of  having  some  bar- 
barian blood  in  the  veins  of  its  people. 

If  these  old  Teutons,  for  such  we  call  them,  were  living 
to-day,  how  proud  they  would  be  to  see  their  children's 
children  spreading  over  the  earth  and  ruling  in  all  western 


2  DAWN   Or   AMERICAN  HISTORY   IN  EUROPE 

Europe,  in  America,  Australia,  and  South  Africa!  They 
would  be  proud  of  us,  perhaps,  but  should  we  be  proud  of 
them?  How  should  you  like  to  entertain  one  of  them  in 
your  home  ? 

Their   Early   History.  —  Twenty   centuries   ago,    before 
Christ  was  born,  these  barbarian  forefathers  of  ours  were 


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A  Village  of  the  Teutons. 


somewhat  like  the  American  Indians  as  Columbus  first 
found  them.  Being  unable  to  read  or  write,  they  knew 
nothing  at  all  of  their  own  early  history.  Where  they 
came  from  in  the  first  place  we  do  not  know.  But  for 
long  ages  they  lived  in  Europe,  and  scholars  have  learned 
a  great  deal  about  them  from  relics  found  in  caves,  sand- 
drifts,  and  graveyards.  The  most  that  we  know  of  these 
early  Germans,  however,  we  have  learned  from  the  Ro- 
mans of  those  days,  who  were  their  neighbors  on  the  south 
and  who  waged  many  wars  with  them. 

The  Romans.  —  It  was  a  custom  of  the  Romans  when 


OUR   GERMAN   FOREFATHERS  3 

they  conquered  a  nation  to  make  every  man  pass  under  a 
yoke  formed  of  two  spears  stuck  in  the  ground  and  slanted 
together  at  the  top.  To  go  under  the  yoke  meant  to  obey 
Rome  ever  after,  just  as  an  ox  obeys  its  driver.  Rome  had 
conquered  nearly  all  the  other  great  nations  of  the  world 


Roman  Soldiers  Marching. 


and  had  forced  them  to  obey  her,  but  for  two  hundred  and 
fifty  years  she  had  tried  in  vain  to  conquer  the  German 
barbarians. 

A  Bitter  Lesson.  —  At  last  the  great  Roman  emperor, 
Augustus,  resolved  to  send  his  armies  into  Germany  and 
to  force  the  Teutons  under  the  yoke  of  Rome.  So  he  sent 
his  famous  general,  Varus,  with  Rome's  finest  legions  against 
the  fierce  Teutons.  Varus  crossed  the  Rhine  River,  which 
was  the  boundary,  and  fought  his  way  to  the  very  heart 
of  the  barbarian  forests.  But  he  never  returned.  His 
splendid  army  of  twenty  thousand  men  was  trapped  and 


DAWN   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 


slain  almost  to  a  man.  The  fierce  Germans  nailed  some  of 
the  Roman  officers  to  crosses  ;  others  they  buried  alive ;  and 
still  others  were  turned  over  to  the  priests  to  be  bled  to 
death  on  the  altar  as  a  sacrifice  to  their  heathen  gods. 
When  the  aged  Augustus  heard  the  sad  news,  he  cried  out. 
again  and  again  in  bitter  sorrow,  "  O  Varus,  Varus!  give 
me  back  my  legions." 

Many  times  after  this,  Rome  undertook  to  master  the 

proud  Teutons.  But  every 
time  her  legions  advanced 
far  into  the  German  father- 
land, they  were  either  sur- 
rounded and  cut  to  pieces 
amid  the  dark,  pathless  for- 
ests, or  they  were  driven 
back  pell-mell  across  the 
river  boundary,  glad  to  es- 
cape with  their  lives. 

Explaining  Defeat.  —  The 
Teutons  were  indeed  mighty 
warriors.  So  rugged  were 
they  that  they  could  bear 
the  coldest  winter  weather 
with  little  clothing,  they 
could  endure  hunger  and 
great  hardships  without 
flinching,  and  they  were 
braver  than  any  other  warriors  of  those  days.  The  Ro- 
mans declared  that  they  feared  no  other  nation  on  earth 
except  these  fierce  Teutons.  In  order  to  explain  their  de- 
feat, the  Romans  imagined  that  the  Germans  were  more 
than  men  ;  they  were  indeed  a  race  of  real  giants  with  fierce, 
blue  eyes  and  red  hair.     One  Roman  writer  gravely  said 


Emperor  Augustus. 


OUR   GERMAN   FOREFATHERS  5 

that  the  Germans  near  the  Baltic  Sea  had  hoofs  like  horses 
instead  of  human  feet,  and  ears  large  enough  to  cover  their 
bodies. 

How  Far  the  Teutons  had  Advanced.  —  While  the 
Teutons  knew  nothing  of  reading  and  writing,  still  they 
were  not  savages.  They  had  taken  many  important  steps 
toward  civilization  that  were  unknown  to  the  cave  men. 
They  knew,  of  course,  how  to  make  fire  and  how  to  catch 
fish  for  food.  They  had  invented  the  spear  pointed  with 
flint,  and  the  bow  and  arrow ;  they  made  stone  and  bone 
tools.  Some  wise  ancestor  had  learned  how  to  weave  bas- 
kets of  cane  and  splint,  and  somebody  had  taught  them 
how  to  weave  cloth  from  grass  and  other  fiber.  They 
tanned  leather,  and  made  pottery  of  clay.  They  tamed 
all  the  domestic  animals  in  use  to-day  —  the  horse,  cow, 
sheep,  pig,  and  goat.  They  raised  patches  of  all  the  com- 
mon field  plants,  such  as  wheat,  oats,  rye,  and  barley — all 
except  Indian  corn.  What  was  still  more  important,  they 
had  found  out  how  to  smelt  iron  ore.  How  they  came  by 
all  this -knowledge  nobody  knows. 

How  They  Obtained  Food.  —  These  old  Germans  ob- 
tained food  partly  by  hunting  and  fishing,  partly  from  forest 
fruits  and  berries,  and  partly  from  scanty  crops  of  field 
grains.  But  Caesar,  who  spent  many  years  fighting  in 
their  wild  country,  tells  us  that  their  main  food  supply  was 
obtained  from  great  herds  of  cattle  and  hogs.  Milk,  butter, 
cheese,  and  meat,  we  know,  make  the  best  of  food,  but  of 
these  the  barbarians  had  far  from  enough.  They  knew  well 
how  to  preserve  meat  by  smoking  it.  So  excellent  were 
their  smoked  hams  that  they  were  known  and  prized  even 
in  far-away  Rome. 

The  Struggle  for  Food.  —  From  morning  until  night  the 
barbarians   were   busy    keeping    hunger    from    the    door. 


6        DAWN  OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

The  women  and  slaves  were  caring  for  the  herds  of  cattle 
and  tilling  the  soil  with  rude,  wooden  tools.  The  men  were, 
meanwhile,  scouring  the  woodlands  for  game.  When  the 
population  became  crowded  and  the  game  grew  scarce,  or 
when  disease  killed  off  their  cattle,  the  people  were  com- 
pelled either  to  migrate  to  a  better  region,  plunder  some 
neighbor,  or  starve.  So  we  cannot  blame  them  for  righting 
and  plundering.  With  so  much  practice  they  became  fierce 
and  powerful  warriors. 


German  Homes. 

Barbarian  Dress.  —  The  clothing  of  these  people  was 
chiefly  made  of  the  skins  of  animals,  but  they  also  wove  a 
coarse  cloth  from,  grass  and  other  fiber,  and  often  colored 
this  purple  or  red.  This  was  worn  by  the  women.  Those 
nations  that  lived  farther  north  clothed  themselves  in  furs. 

Village  Life.  — These  barbarians  had  no  cities,  but  lived 
in  little  villages  near  a  stream  or  a  wood.  Their  rude 
dwellings  were  not  built  of  stone  or  brick.  They  were  low 
huts,  circular  in  form,  made  of  poles  and  thatched  with 


OUR   GERMAN  FOREFATHERS  7 

straw,  with  holes  in  the  tops  to  allow  the  smoke  to  go  out. 
In  these  they  lived,  with  little  furniture,  much  as  did  the 
American  Indians  in  their  wigwams.  The  stable  and  cow- 
shed were  often  under  the  same  roof  with  the  cabin.  Their 
scattered  huts  formed  groups  that  we  might  call  villages. 
But  we  must  not  picture  them  as  rows  of  houses  along  both 
sides  of  a  street.  They  faced  all  ways,  and  there  was  a  net- 
work of  paths  among  them.  Some  of  these  villages  were, 
perhaps,  in  clearings  or  open  places,  and  others  in  the  un- 
broken forests,  where  often  the  inmates  of  one  hut  could 
scarcely  see  the  home  of  their  nearest  neighbors. 

How  They  Divided  Their  Land.  —  Each  household  had 
a  share  of  the  cleared  land  and  usually  another  section  of 
woodland  near  by,  where  they  fed  their  herds  of  cattle  and 
swine.  Then  farther  away  was  the  large,  rough  district  of 
common  pasture  or  woodland,  not  claimed  by  anybody, 
where  the  cattle  of  all  roamed  for  browsing  and  pasture, 
and  the  hogs  for  acorns  and  beechnuts. 

The  Boundaries.  —  Still  farther  away  was  a  tract  of 
woodland  where  they  hunted  wild  game.  This  whole  region 
they  called  the  Mark.  As  each  village  had  about  it  a  wide 
stretch  of  vacant  land,  chiefly  woods,  so  had  each  nation  or 
tribe,  in  a  wider  sense,  a  great  tract  of  country  separating 
it  from  neighboring  nations  or  tribes.  The  greater  na- 
tions boasted  of  this  wide,  unoccupied  land  about  them, 
sometimes  eighty  or  a  hundred  miles  wide,  as  proof  of  their 
bravery,  for  it  showed  that  other  nations  were  glad  to  keep 
their  distance. 

Iron  was  Precious.  —  Iron  was  very  scarce  among  the 
Teutons,  so  it  was  highly  prized.  What  little  they  had  was 
probably  smelted  in  rude  hillside  furnaces,  or  brought  to 
them  by  Roman  traders.  So  valuable  was  iron  that  it 
would  surely  have  been  used  for  money,  if  the  Germans  had 


8 


DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 


known  the  use  of  money.  Whatever  iron  they  could  get 
they  used  in  making  weapons.  They  could  not  afford  to 
use  it  even  to  make  their  farm  tools.  Without  money  and 
with  little  iron,  no  nation  could  advance  very  rapidly  to- 
ward civilized  life,  because  it  could  not  carry  on  farming  to 
any  extent,  or  manufacturing,  or  trading. 

What  Their  Riches  were.  —  The  wealth  of  the  barbarians 
consisted  of  monstrous  herds  of  cattle  and  swine.     Money 


Teutons  Crossing  the  Rhine. 


was  unknown  save  a  few  Roman  coins  along  the  borders 
of  the  empire.  They  merely  bartered,  or  exchanged  ar- 
ticles in  trade.  A  clay  vessel  was  as  precious  in  their  eyes  as 
a  solid  silver  vase.  Men  did  not  own  land,  partly,  perhaps, 
because  they  had  to  keep  moving  about  to  find  pasturage  for 
their  flocks  and  herds.  Land  probably  kept  passing  from 
tribe  to  tribe,  for  there  was  continual  righting.  All  the  land 
of  a  tribe  therefore  belonged  to  the  tribe  as  a  whole,  for  the 
arms  of  the  tribe  were  always  needed  to  defend  and  hold  it. 
Easy  to  Migrate.  —  Owning  no  land,  it  was  easy  for 
families  to  migrate  and  carry  all  their  property  with  them. 


OUR    GERMAN   FOREFATHERS  0 

They  followed  river  valleys  mainly,  because  of  the  need  of 
water  and  pasturage  for  their  cattle.  But  they  were  not 
on  the  march  all  the  time.  When  they  found  some  favored 
region  where  the  soil  was  fertile,  the  pasture  good,  and  the 
surrounding  woods  plentifully  stocked  with  game,  they 
remained  there  for  years,  or  until  some  stronger  tribe  drove 
them  out. 

Plowland  Changed  Hands  Annually.  —  Small  patches 
of  land  were  cultivated,  mainly  by  the  women,  the  old 
men,  and  the  slaves ;  enough  grain  was  raised  to  piece  out 
their  scanty  food  supply  through  the  winter.  The  plow- 
land  was  divided  anew  every  year,  so  no  family  was  sure  of 
having  the  same  patch  of  ground  for  two  successive  years. 
This  was  a  bad  plan,  because  no  one  cared  to  improve  his 
land  by  taking  especially  good  care  of  it,  since  this  would 
merely  benefit  some  one  else.  The  result  was  that  the  soil 
was  abused  and  was  soon  worn  out.  It  had  to  lie  unused 
for  a  few  years  to  regain  strength.  For  this  reason  the 
barbarians  divided  their  cleared  land  into  three  tracts  :  one 
was  used  for  pasture,  one  for  raising  crops,  and  one  was 
allowed  to  rest.  Orchards  and  meadow  lands  were  un- 
known. 

No  Chance  for  the  Clever  Farmer.  —  Not  only  must  each 
farmer  take  whatever  patch  of  ground  was  assigned  to  him, 
but  he  was  told  what  crops  he  might  raise  and  when  and 
how  he  must  plant  the  seed.  This  left  no  chance  for  the 
more  clever  farmer  to  improve  upon  his  neighbors.  Since 
all  tilling  was  left  to  women  and  slaves  with  rude  tools,  no 
progress  whatever  was  made  in  agriculture. 

German  Love  of  Liberty.  —  These  early  Germans  loved 
liberty.  An  arbitrary  king  they  would  not  endure.  They 
were  willing  to  obey  only  those  laws  that  they  had  a  voice 
in  making.     If  they  became  dissatisfied  at  home,  they  could 


io       DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

easily  migrate  with  their  herds  and  families  and  set  up  a 
government  to  their  liking.  For  two  thousand  years  their 
children  have  shown  the  same  love  of  liberty.  Every  few 
years  we  now  hear  of  some  daughter  nation  that  has  put 
aside  her  king  and  set  up  a  republic  like  ours. 

How  They  were  Governed.  —  The  Teutons  had  a  simple 
form  of  government.  As  soon  as  a  youth  reached  the  age 
of  manhood,  he  was  introduced  to  the  village  meeting  of 
his  countrymen.  Here  he  was  solemnly  presented  with  a 
wooden  shield  and  a  spear,  and  made  full  member  of  the 
tribe.  The  village  meeting,  which  was  called  together  sev- 
eral times  a  year  under  some  sacred  oak,  made  all  the  laws. 
It  punished  lawbreakers,  elected  the  magistrate,  and  settled 
the  great  questions  of  peace  and  war  by  shouts  or  a  loud 
clashing  of  shields. 

Magistrates  Could  Only  Advise.  —  Like  Indian  chiefs,  the 
barbarian  magistrates  might  urge  the  people  and  try  to 
persuade  them  to  do  certain  things,  but  the  final  decision  was 
always  left  to  the  warriors  themselves.  So  they  often 
voted  for  foolish  and  wicked  measures  because  it  suited  their 
present  fierce  tempers.  When  their  magistrates  urged 
them  to  be  careful  lest  they  suffer  from  their  rash  acts,  the 
warriors  shouted  "  No!  "  But  when  one  proposed  to  take 
vengeance  upon  an  enemy  by  some  act  of  danger  and  glory, 
there  was  a  loud  clashing  of  spears  and  shields,  by  which  the 
warriors  meant  "  Yes." 

How  the  Women  were  Treated.  —  The  German  men 
bought  their  wives  like  slaves,  but  they  treated  their  women 
much  better  than  did  the  Greeks  or  even  the  Romans.  In 
their  great  invasions  into  Roman  territory,  the  camps  of 
the  barbarians  were  filled  with  a  multitude  of  women,  who 
remained  cool  and  firm  amidst  the  sound  of  battle  and  the 
wounds  of  their  sons  and  husbands,     When  the  German 


OUR   GERMAN   FOREFATHERS  n 

warriors  were  put  to  rout,  their  women  still  fought  on  to 
defend  their  camp  and  baggage.  They  dreaded  death 
much  less  than  slavery  among  the  Romans.  If  the  day  was 
hopelessly  lost,  many  of  these  brave  women  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  take  their  own  lives  by  hanging  themselves  on  the 
horns  of  the  oxen  rather  than  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy. 

Their  Strange  Religion.  —  The  wild  Germans  had  strange 
ideas  of  religion.  They  worshiped  the  sun,  the  moon, 
fire,  and  the  earth.  They  believed,  too,  in  unseen  gods,  to 
whom  they  often  sacrificed  human  beings.  They  built  no 
temples  or  churches  because  they  were  unskilled  in  archi- 
tecture and  had  no  thought  of  trying  to  make  anything 
beautiful.  The  dark  and  ancient  groves  were  their  only 
temples  of  worship.  Their  idols  were  rough  and  shapeless. 
Rude  and  unlearned  priests  worked  with  cunning  magic 
or  sly  trickery  upon  their  simple  minds. 

The  Sacred  Grove.  —  Somewhere  between  the  Elbe  and 
the  Oder  stood  the  most  sacred  grove  of  all  Germany.  Here 
the  Germans  believed  the  great  god  of  all  the  Teutons  had 
been  born  —  Odin,  the  god  of  war.  To  him  alone  of  all  the 
German  gods  human  sacrifices  were  offered.  And  they  were 
offered  in  this  most  sacred  grove.  It  was  so  holy  a  place 
that  none  might  enter  it  but  with  a  chain  around  his  neck, 
to  show  his  obedience  to  Odin.  If  a  man  fell  down  in  the 
wood,  he  might  not  rise  again ;  he  must  crawl  out  on  his 
hands  and  knees.  The  Germans  also  worshiped  Thor, 
the  god  of  storms  and  tempests,  who  caused  thunder  by 
hurling  his  hammer  through  the  heavens,  and  showed  his 
anger  by  blasting  the  mountain  trees  with  lightning. 

The  Chief  Goddess.  —  The  goddess  Nerthus,  or  Mother 
Earth,  whom  the  Germans  worshiped,  was  thought  to 
dwell  upon  an  island  of  the  Baltic  Sea.     Every  year  she 


T2        DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

was  brought  out  of  this  secret  place  and  ferried  over  to  the 
mainland,  but  no  one  save  her  priest  was  allowed  to  look 
upon  her.  In  a  covered  car,  drawn  by  white  oxen,  she 
passed  through  the  lands  of  all  the  tribes ;  and  the  ignorant 
believed  all  that  the  priest  told  them  of  their  unseen  god- 
dess. During  this  time  the  sound  of  war  was  hushed, 
quarrels  and  arms  were  laid  aside,  and  the  restless  Germans 
had  an  opportunity  of  tasting  the  blessings  of  peace  and 
good  will. 

Priests  Encouraged  Wicked  Deeds.  —  Religion  was  not 
used  to  instill  into  the  savage  hearts  of  these  people  the  ideals 
of  love  and  peace,  but  rather  to  stir  up  their  fierce  and  ugly 
passions.  The  priests  often  urged  them  on  to  daring  and 
wicked  deeds.  They  had  sacred  banners,  on  which  ap- 
peared the  heads  of  wild  beasts.  In  battle  these  were  placed 
in  front  of  the  warriors,  who  vowed  that  they  would  defeat 
their  enemies  and  turn  them  over  to  the  angry  gods  of  war 
and  thunder. 

Cowardice  was  the  unpardonable  sin.  The  wretch  who 
lost  his  shield  was  banished  from  the  religious  and  civil 
meetings  of  his  countrymen.  All  agreed  that  a  life  spent 
in  arms  and  a  glorious  death  in  battle  were  especially  pleas- 
ing to  their  god  Odin,  and  that  in  this  direction  lay  the 
surest  path  to  a  happy  hereafter. 

Heaven.  —  The  Germans  believed  that,  after  death,  all 
warriors  who  had  fallen  while  bravely  righting  were  wel- 
comed by  Odin  to  his  divine  halls.  Here  the  heroes  ate, 
drank,  and  fought  all  day  long,  only  to  begin  anew  on  the 
morrow. 

The  Warriors  in  Peace.  —  The  warrior's  business,  like 
that  of  the  Indian  brave,  was  to  hunt  and  to  fight.  All 
kinds  of  manual  labor  were  beneath  his  dignity,  save  one. 
The  trade  of  the  blacksmith  was  held  in  high  honor,  for  it 


OUR   GERMAN   FOREFATHERS 


J3 


was  he  who  made  the  battle-axes,  spears,  and  other  weapons. 
After  a  successful  hunt  or  plundering  raid,  the  lazy  warriors 
alternately  slept  and  gorged  themselves  while  the  food 
lasted.  They  idled  away  their  days  and  nights  in  gambling 
and  drunkenness.  Their  liq- 
uor was  a  strong  beer  made 
from  wheat  or  barley. 
Friends  and  relatives  were 
often  slain  in  their  drunken 
quarrels.  So  reckless  were 
they  in  betting  that  they 
would  stake  even  their  liberty 
on  a  game.  If  they  lost,  they 
gave  themselves  up  to  be  sold 
as  slaves. 

Germans  Rejoiced  in  Bat- 
tle. —  After  a  time  these  rest- 
less warriors  became  tired  of 
such  dull  days  of  peace,  or 
perhaps  food  became  scarce. 
Then  war  and  pillage  were 
resolved  upon.  Nothing 
suited  their  fiery  tempers  so 
well  as  fighting.  They  rejoiced  at  the  call  to  battle,  for  they 
thought  it  unbecoming  in  brave  warriors  to  labor  or  to 
trade  for  food  that  they  might  easily  take  by  force.  The 
provinces  of  the  Roman  empire,  with  their  orchards  and 
fields  of  grain,  seemed  to  invite  plunder.  Roman  lands 
were  especially  tempting,  because  in  the  warmer  climate  of 
Italy  choice  grapes  were  raised  and  made  into  wine,  a 
Roman  liquor  of  which  our  forefathers  were  very  fond.  The 
first  Latin  word  that  they  learned  from  the  Roman  traders 
was  "wine." 


Arms  of  the  Teutons. 


14       DAWN   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

The  Great  Chiefs.  —  The  young  men  joined  themselves 
by  oath  to  some  famous  chief  whom  they  followed  in  war. 
They  strove  to  outshine  one  another  in  battle,  so  as  to  obtain 
a  high  place  in  the  esteem  of  their  leader.  Each  chief  tried 
to  join  to  himself  the  greatest  number  of  brave  followers, 
for  in  this  way  only  could  he  be  honored  in  peace  and  power- 
ful in  war.  So  the  young  men  flocked  by  tens,  hundreds,  or 
even  thousands  to  the  most  renowned  chiefs,  and  foreign 
nations  courted  their  friendship  eagerly.  Even  the  Romans 
were  glad  to  buy  their  friendship  by  bestowing  upon  them 
gifts  or  titles  of  honor  such  as  "  Citizen  "  or  "  Friend  of 
the  Romans." 

Men  Loyal  to  Their  Chief.  —  In  battle  it  was  thought 
shameful  for  a  chief  not  to  equal  his  followers  in  bravery, 
while  for  them  to  remain  alive  after  their  chief  had  fallen 
was  an  everlasting  disgrace.  It  was  their  sacred  duty  to 
protect  him  and  to  add  to  his  glory  by  their  own  brilliant 
deeds.  The  only  reward  they  claimed  from  their  chief  was 
a  war  horse  or  a  bloody  spear.  But  it  was  their  privilege 
also  to  sit  at  his  table  and  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  plunder. 

Fighting  Their  Business.  —  Whenever  their  own  country 
was  at  peace  and  their  days  seemed  dull,  the  noblest  chiefs 
led  their  followers  to  distant  nations  to  win  glory  by  fighting 
on  one  side  or  the  other;  it  mattered  little  which  side. 
The  fame  of  the  chief  often  brought  victory  to  the  party 
he  joined  with  his  band.  Thousands  of  Germans  were 
often  brought  into  the  Roman  army  to  fight  for  pay  against 
their  own  countrymen. 

Music.  —  The  Germans  enjoyed  a  sort  of  rude  music. 
In  the  hour  of  battle  or  at  the  feast  of  victory,  singing  bards 
excited  the  men  by  war  songs  celebrating  the  heroes  of 
ancient  days.  They  sang  also  of  the  glory  of  their  living 
warriors,  who  loved  to  hear  their  own  praise. 


OUR   GERMAN   FOREFATHERS 


15 


Their  Weapons.  —  These  barbarians  had  little  iron  to  use 
for  weapons.  They  were  not  acquainted  with  swords  or 
long  lances.  They  had  long  spears  headed  with  a  sharp  but 
narrow  iron  point,  which  they  either  hurled  from  a  distance 
or  used  in  hand-to-hand  fighting.  With  this  spear  and  a 
shield  of  wood  a  horseman  was  contented.  The  foot  sol- 
diers, armed  with  bows  and  arrows,  threw  darts  with  wonder- 


German  Bodyguard. 


ful  power.  Their  dress  in  battle,  when  they  wore  any,  was 
nothing  more  than  a  loose  garment  of  skin,  which  left  the 
arms  and  legs  free.  Their  wooden  shields  were  adorned 
with  a  variety  of  colors.  Helmets  were  worn  only  by  a 
few  chieftains. 

Their  Fierce  Bravery.  —  With  their  fierce  blue  eyes, 
tangled  red  hair,  and  faces  made  hideous  with  a  reddish  oil, 
these  giant  Teuton  warriors  struck  terror  to  the  hearts  of 
the  Romans.  They  rushed  to  battle  with  leveled  spears, 
with  furious  shouts,  and  in  great  disorder.  But  in  spite  of 
rude  arms  and  broken  ranks,  they  often  won  victories  over 
the  well-armed  Romans,  through  sheer  native  bravery.     No 


1 6       DAWN   OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

wonder  the  Romans  thought  that  the  barbarians  fought  like 
very  demons.  When  the  warriors  were  beaten,  their  women 
fought  on ;  and  lastly  their  very  dogs  kept  up  the  fight  to 
defend  the  bodies  of  their  masters. 

The  First  and  Last  Charge.  —  The  first  charge  of  the 
German  warriors  was  speedy  and  furious.  But  if  they 
failed  to  break  through  the  enemy's  lines,  they  were  easily 
driven  back.  And  as  they  did  not  know  how  to  rally  their 
troops,  a  retreat  usually  meant  total  defeat  and  destruction. 
There  was  no  such  thing  as  honorable  surrender.  The 
victorious  army  slew  as  many  as  their  battle-axes  could 
overtake. 

Commerce  in  Days  of  Peace.  —  But  the  barbarians  and 
Romans  were  not  fighting  all  the  time.  There  were  days 
of  peace  when  a  growing  trade  took  place  between  them, 
across  the  wall  and  river  boundary.  The  Germans  had 
learned  to  enjoy  many  of  the  good  things  of  the  Romans, 
such  as  wine,  ornaments,  arms,  spices,  and  finer  clothing. 
Traders  scattered  Roman  coins  among  the  neighboring 
Germans  in  trade,  bringing  back  furs,  smoked  meats,  saus- 
ages, and  a  certain  reddish  oil  which  Roman  ladies  used  on 
their  faces  to  make  themselves  beautiful.  Antlers,  goose 
feathers,  and  human  hair  were  also  carried  to  Rome.  Per- 
haps horses  and  cattle,  too,  were  brought  across  the  border 
into  the  empire. 

Germans  Become  Christians.  —  The  Christian  religion, 
which  had  spread  over  the  whole  Roman  empire,  was  also 
carried  across  the  river  line ;  and  the  Germans  who  lived 
nearest  the  border  received  the  gentle  message  of  the  Gos- 
pel and  became,  after  a  fashion,  Christians.  The  more 
distant  tribes,  however,  remained  heathen  for  centuries. 

Hear  of  the  Cowardly  Romans.  —  The  traders  also 
carried  to  the  Germans  stories  of  Rome,  of  the  fertile  lands, 


OUR  GERMAN  FOREFATHERS 


17 


1 8       DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

of  boundless  wealth,  and  of  the  Romans  who  had  grown  too 
lazy  and  cowardly  to  fight  any  more  in  defense  of  all  these 
treasures.  Some  of  the  warriors,  who  hired  themselves  to 
the  Romans  to  fight,  saw  the  wonderful  cities  of  the  Roman 
empire  and  returned  to  tell  their  heathen  brothers  about 
what  they  had  seen  and  heard.  Rome,  they  said,  was  a 
grand  city  whose  streets  were  all  paved  with  gold ;  and  no 
one  had  anything  to  do  there  but  to  sit  and  bathe  free  of 
charge  and  go  to  the  theater  to  see  thousands  of  gladiators 
fight  at  once,  and  drink  the  wondrous  liquor  that  they  call 
wine.  If  it  were  not  for  the  walls  around  the  city,  they 
said,  the  Germans  might  easily  get  all  the  rich  plunder  of 
this  splendid  city,  for  one  need  not  fear  the  cowardly  Ro- 
mans any  more  than  a  flock  of  sheep.  So  you  will  see  that 
everything  was  tending  to  draw  the  thoughts  and  hopes  of 
our  German  forefathers  to  the  south. 

Country  Too  Crowded  —  Move  or  Starve.  —  Then  there 
were  two  forces  that  were  steadily  pushing  the  Germans 
southward.  One  of  these  was  the  growing  number  of 
people.  "  So  long  as  a  nation  lives  mainly  by  hunting  and 
grazing  it  needs  an  immense  quantity  of  land.  If  it  does 
not  have  this,  the  game  will  get  scarce,  the  rivers  will  be 
fished  out,  and  the  people  must  move  or  starve."  The 
barbarians  at  this  time  were  increasing  rapidly  in  numbers, 
and  their  lands  were  not  large  enough  to  support  them. 
"  One  of  two  things  they  must  do,  either  clear  and  cultivate 
their  own  rough  country,  or  take  the  lands  that  the  industry 
of  the  Romans  had  made  ready  for  them.  A  race  of 
fresh,  vigorous  fighting  men  could  not  hesitate  ;  they  would 
take  their  neighbor's  land."  Then,  too,  the  Germans  were 
being  pushed  southward  by  immense  tribes  of  still  ruder 
barbarians  —  the  Slavs  and  Huns  who  were  eager  to  seize 
upon  the  lands  of  the  Germans. 


OUR   GERMAN   FOREFATHERS  19 

The  Good  Qualities  of  the  Germans.  —  There  are  two 
important  things  that  we  must  remember  about  these  bar- 
barian forefathers  of  ours  of  two  thousand  years  ago.  The 
first  thing  is  that  while  they  were  nearly  as  barbarous  as  the 
American  Indian,  there  was  one  great  difference  between 
them.  The  German  had  great  capacity  to  learn,  the  In- 
dian had  not.  The  Indian,  upon  first  contact  with  civi- 
lized man,  learned  of  him  only  his  vices.  "  The  German 
meeting  the  Roman,  learned  of  him  how  to  govern,  how  to 
read  and  write,  to  cultivate  the  ground,  to  build  cities  and 
live  in  them,  to  put  aside  his  old  religion  and  to  take  that 
of  the  conquered  Roman."  He  did  not  learn  all  this  in  a 
year  or  in  a  century.  We  shall  see  that  it  took  hundreds 
of  years  for  the  Germans  to  educate  themselves  to  the  level 
of  the  Romans. 

The  Greatest  Race  in  History.  —  In  this  ability  to  learn 
and  to  fit  itself  into  new  surroundings,  the  Teutonic  race  is 
the  most  wonderful  race  in  the  history  of  the  world.  This 
is  the  secret  of  the  great  things  it  has  done  for  mankind  in 
all  lines  of  improvement  —  in  learning  and  free  education,  in 
art  and  literature,  in  religious  freedom  and  self-government, 
in  labor-saving  inventions,  in  discovering  the  laws  of  nature 
and  using  them  to  do  the  work  of  man.  In  all  these  things 
the  children  of  the  Teutons  have  for  centuries  taken  the 
lead. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  are  we  interested  in  the  Teutonic  tribes  ?  2.  How  did  we 
find  out  about  them  ?  3.  Why  do  we  know  so  little  of  their  history  ? 
4.  How  were  they  like  our  Indians  ?  5.  Where  did  they  come  from  ? 
6.  Who  were  the  Romans?  7.  Why  did  the  Romans  tell  us  of  the 
Germans  ?  8.  Locate  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube.  9.  What  emperor 
planned  a  great  attack?  10.  Whom  did  he  send?  11.  What  were 
legions?     12.  What  was  the  outcome  of  this  advance?     13.   What 


20       DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

were  the  early  Germans  noted  for  ?  14.  Give  the  Roman  description 
of  Germans.  15.  What  progress  had  they  made  ?  16.  Why  was  not 
this  progress  greater?  17.  What  food  did  the  Teutons  eat? 
18.  What  work  did  they  do  ?  19.  How  did  they  dress  ?  20.  Describe 
their  villages.  21.  How  were  their  lands  divided  ?  22.  Who  owned 
the  land?  23.  What  was  a  mark ?  24.  How  were  they  governed ? 
25.  Describe  their  trade.  26.  Account  for  their  roving.  27.  De- 
scribe their  farming.  28.  Compare  their  farming  with  our  modern 
farming.  29.  What  were  their  amusements  and  what  do  they  tell  of 
the  people?  30.  What  was  woman's  part  in  the  Teutonic  life? 
31.  Discuss  their  religious  ideas,  their  churches  and  gods.  32.  What 
influence  had  their  religion  upon  their  lives?  33.  Were  the  Teutons 
really  bad  ?     34.   Why,  or  why  not  ? 

Armies  —  35.  Of  what  importance  was  the  chief  ?  36.  Who  were 
his  followers?  37.  How  were  they  paid  for  fighting?  38.  What 
was  the  attitude  of  the  people  toward  fighting  ?  39.  What  part  in 
the  fight  did  the  bards  take?  40.  What  weapons  were  used? 
41.   How  were  the  fighters  dressed  ?     42.    Describe  an  attack. 

Trade  of  the  Teutons  —  43.  What  was  traded  ?  44.  Where  did 
they  trade  ?  45.  What  were  the  results  of  this  trade  ?  46.  What 
do  you  think  was  the  most  important  result?  47.  What  reports  of 
this  trade  did  the  Romans  give  ? 


CHAPTER   II 
ROME   CONQUERING   THE   WORLD 

The  City  of  Seven  Hills.  —  Rome,  the  City  of  Seven  Hills, 
was  once  mistress  of  the  world.  The  city  was  built  upon 
low  hills  along  the  Tiber  River,  fifteen  miles  from  the  sea. 
In  the  early  days  the  Romans  ruled  over  only  a  small  dis- 
trict along  the  Tiber,  but  they  were  great  warriors.  Not 
only  was  each  soldier  very  brave,  but  the  regiments,  which 
they  called  legions,  were  well  trained  and  armed  with  good 
weapons.  They  obeyed  all  commands  instantly,  and  as  in 
a  trained  football  team,  each  man  played  his  own  separate 
part.  First,  they  made  their  home  city  safe  by  building 
huge  walls  around  it.  Then  they  set  about  to  subdue  all 
the  surrounding  tribes.  It  was  not  long  before  Rome  was 
ruler  of  the  entire  peninsula  of  Italy. 

Rome  Matches  Swords  with  Carthage.  —  So  proud  were 
the  Romans  of  their  valor  that  they  were  easily  provoked 
to  battle.  Thus  they  were  soon  in  the  midst  of  long  wars 
with  the  ancient  city  of  Carthage,  a  very  powerful  city  on 
the  northern  coast  of  Africa.  Carthage  was  a  rich  and 
prosperous  state  whose  trading  ships  carried  on  an  extensive 
commerce  upon  the  Mediterranean  in  those  days.  The  city 
had  many  great  ships  of  war,  and  her  sailors  were  at  home 
upon  the  sea.  The  Romans  had  no  ships  whatever,  and 
they  did  not  even  know  how  to  build  a  vessel  of  any  kind. 
How,  then,  could  the  Romans  hope  to  fight  the  men  of  Car- 
thage? A  fortunate  thing  happened  to  the  Romans  about 
this  time,  for  a  great  storm  wrecked  a  Carthaginian  warship, 


22      DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 


and  the  waves  cast  it  upon  the  shore  of  Italy.  The  Romans 
looked  it  over  carefully,  and  made  some  ships  like  it.  They 
put  their  soldiers  into  them  and  pushed  out  to  sea.  Ap- 
proaching the  enemy,  the  Romans  let  heavy  iron  hooks,  fixed 
upon  the  ends  of  poles,  fall  upon  the  enemy's  ships,  and  this 
fastened  the  vessels  together  two  by  two.  The  Roman 
warriors  leaped  upon  the  Carthaginian  ships  and  fought 
as  if  on  land,  and  conquered.     From  this  time  on,  the  Ro- 


Hannibal  Crossing  the  Rhone. 

mans  became  more  and  more  powerful  and  victorious  upon 
the  sea. 

The  Great  Hannibal.  —  Rome  won  in  the  first  war  with 
Carthage,  and  gained  the  island  of  Sicily.  But  some  years 
later  Carthage  was  again  ready  to  fight.  Her  great  gen- 
eral, Hannibal,  had  sworn  everlasting  hatred  for  the  Ro- 
mans. Hannibal  resolved  to  lead  his  splendid  army  and 
his  huge  war  elephants  into  Italy.  So  he  crossed  the  Strait 
of  Gibraltar  into  Spain,  where  he  won  some  victories  over 


ROME   CONQUERING   THE   WORLD 


23 


the  Romans.  Then  he  marched  with  great  difficulty  through 
the  steep  mountain  passes  into  Gaul,  or  France.  The 
mighty  Alps  lay  across  his  path,  but  Hannibal  did  not  fal- 
ter. Rafts  were  built  to  ferry  his  elephants  across  the 
rivers,  and  before  long  his  army  was  toiling  through  the 
foothills  of  the  Alps.  The  snow  was  deep  in  the  mountain 
passes,  the  trails  were  narrow  and  slippery,  and  men  and 
beasts  fell  over  steep  cliffs  and  were  crushed  to  death  upon 


146  B.C. 
Roman  Dominion 
Roman  Dependencies 


the  rocks  below.  The  hostile  mountain  tribes  rolled  stones 
down  the  steep  slopes  upon  the  struggling  men. 

Carthage  Taken.  —  At  last  Hannibal  descended  into 
Italy  with  his  army  and  war  elephants  and  won  many 
battles  over  the  Romans ;  but  he  feared  to  attack  Rome. 
After  a  time  Hannibal  was  called  back  to  Carthage,  and  the 
Romans  followed  and  defeated  him  in  Africa.  Hannibal 
took  his  own  life  rather  than  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
Romans.  After  a  hundred  years  of  lighting,  Carthage  was 
taken  by  the  plucky  Romans,  who  promptly  burned  it  to 
the  ground.  They  ran  a  plow  over  its  site  and  forbade  its 
ever  being  rebuilt. 

The  Mediterranean  a  Roman  Lake.  —  The  Romans  now 
ruled  over  nearly  all  the  countries  touching  the  western  end 


24      DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

of  the  Mediterranean,  but  they  were  still  dissatisfied.  They 
kept  pushing  their  boundaries  farther  and  farther,  until  the 
entire  Mediterranean  Sea,  from  east  to  west,  became  a 
Roman  lake,  in  which  no  other  nation  dared  so  much  as  wash 
its  hands.  Greece  fell  an  easy  victim  to  the  well-trained 
Roman  warriors,  because  she  was  divided  into  so  many 
little  states,  which  were  jealous  of  one  another  and  fighting 
among  themselves  much  of  the  time  for  leadership. 

The  Treasures  of  Greece.  —  The  Greeks  were  a  wonder- 
fully learned  and  cultivated  people.  They  were  great 
students,  and  their  books  contained  treasures  of  knowledge 
and  poetry  of  great  excellence.  They  loved  to  make  beauti- 
ful things.  Their  cities  were  filled  with  splendid  fountains 
and  statues,  with  gymnasiums  and  temples,  the  most  beauti- 
ful the  world  has  ever  seen.  They  adorned  their  temples 
with  marble  seats,  matchless  statues  of  their  gods,  with 
busts  and  vases,  and  with  porches  supported  by  splendid 
columns.  In  making  beautiful  things,  whether  of  marble 
or  bronze,  of  silver  or  gold,  or  in  painting  lovely  pictures, 
the  Greeks  have  surpassed  all  other  nations.  The  world 
to-day  bows  down  to  them  as  the  leaders  in  beautiful  art 
and  in  the  deep  learning  that  we  call  philosophy. 

Bearing  the  Riches  to  Italy.  —  When  the  Romans  con- 
quered Greece,  they  plundered  the  cities,  and  carried  to 
Italy  shiploads  of  beautiful  things,  —  priceless  statues  and 
busts  of  marble  and  bronze,  adorned  with  gold,  silver, 
and  jewels ;  vases  and  urns  beautifully  carved,  and  all  the 
rich  furniture  of  homes  and  temples.  The  Romans  brought 
along  many  books  written  in  the  Greek  language,  and  thou- 
sands of  educated  Greeks,  whom  they  made  their  slaves. 

Pushing  the  Boundary  Eastward.  —  Pompey,  a  great 
Roman  general,  conquered  the  East,  and  made  the  far-off 
Euphrates  River  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  Roman  power. 


ROME    CONQUERING    THE    WORLD 


25 


26      DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY   IN    EUROPE 


Upon  his  return  to  Rome  he  was  given  a  grand  triumph 
through  the  streets  of  the  capital.  In  the  procession  were 
seen  the  spoils  of  his  campaign.  Three  hundred  and  twenty 
princes  walked  as  captives  before  the  conqueror's  chariot. 
Banners  were  borne  along  which  announced  that  Pompey 

had  conquered  twenty- 
one  kings,  taken  a  thou- 
sand forts,  nine  hundred 
towns,  eight  hundred 
ships,  and  subdued 
twelve  millions  of 
people. 

The  Greatest  of  All 
Romans.  —  Another  Ro- 
man, Julius  Caesar,  led 
his  legions  into  Gaul  and 
added  what  are  now 
France  and  Spain  to 
Roman  territory.  Caesar 
found  it  very  hard  to 
subdue  that  part  of  Gaul 
near  the  English  Chan- 
nel, because  the  Britons 
were  sending  aid  to  the 
Gauls.  So  Caesar  deter- 
mined to  punish  the 
Britons  for  interfering. 
He  crossed  over  into 
Britain  and  won  victories  there,  but  he  did  not  remain 
long.  Caesar  was  a  great  general,  and  his  victories  had 
made  him  famous.  He  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
appointed  to  high  office.  He  soon  became  absolute  master 
of  Rome,  and  proved  himself  even  greater  as  a  statesman 


Cesar,  the  Greatest  of  the  Romans. 


ROME   CONQUERING  THE   WORLD  27 

and  ruler  than  as  a  general.     Some  leading  Romans,  how- 
ever, became  jealous  of  his  growing  power  and  slew  him. 

Augustus  Willing  to  Stop.  —  The  great  Augustus,  who  was 
emperor  at  the  time  that  Christ  was  born,  said  the  empire 
was  at  last  big  enough.  Her  boundaries  reached  to  the 
desert  sards  of  Africa  on  the  south,  to  the  far-off  Euphrates 
River  on  the  east,  and  to  the  Rhine  and  Danube  Rivers  on 
the  north,  while  her  western  border  was  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 


-. 

A  Portion  of  the  Roman  Wall. 

All  the  great  nations  of  the  earth  had  now  been  conquered, 
and  their  lands  made  a  part  of  the  Roman  empire.  When 
you  cast  your  eye  over  this  vast  empire,  you  behold  within 
it  many  countries.  There  were  Italy,  Switzerland,  half 
of  Austria,  Turkey  and  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Egypt, 
all  North  Africa,  Spain,  and  France,  besides  many  islands. 
Rome,  the  Eternal  City,  was  then  indeed  the  light  and  ruler 
of  the  world. 

The    Natural   Boundaries    of   the    Empire.  —  But  how 
could  Rome  hold  such  vast  domains  under  her  sway  ?     Did 


28       DAWN   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

she  not  need  an  immense  army  to  guard  such  extended 
boundaries  against  the  swarms  of  barbarians  on  all  sides  ? 
It  would  seem  so,  but  these  boundaries  were  themselves  a 
fairly  good  protection.  The  empire  was  guarded  on  the 
west  by  the  stormy  Atlantic,  on  the  south  by  the  desolate 
sands  of  the  Sahara  and  Arabian  deserts.  It  was  only  upon 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Rhine-Danube  borders  that  the 
mighty  and  sleepless  legions  were  needed  to  watch  and 
guard. 

Keeping  out  the  Germans.  —  But  so  ferocious  were  the 
German  barbarians  on  the  north,  that  a  later  emperor 
built  a  huge  wall  from  the  headwaters  of  the  Danube  to 
the  headwaters  of  the  Rhine.  This  great  wall  was  three 
hundred  and  thirty-six  miles  in  length,  fifty  feet  thick  at 
the  base,  and  higher  than  your  schoolroom.  Along  this 
wall  were  frequent  forts  and  castles.  There  were  also  watch- 
towers  near  enough  to  one  another  to  signal  by  lighting 
fires  at  night,  and  by  other  signs  by  day.  Outside  the  wall, 
on  the  barbarian  side,  was  a  wide  ditch,  and  beyond  this 
was  a  stretch  of  waste  land  which  the  Germans  might  never 
cross  unless  they  were  accompanied  by  the  Roman  soldiers. 

Seizing  Upon  Britain.  —  Later  emperors  undertook  to 
subdue  the  wild  Britains  who  then  occupied  the  island  of 
England.  All  the  southern  portion  of  the  island  was  con- 
quered, and  made  into  a  Roman  province.  But  so  tame- 
less were  the  wild  tribes  of  what  is  now  Scotland,  that  even 
the  brave  Romans  gave  up  the  task  of  subduing  them. 
It  was  easier,  they  thought,  to  build  a  huge  wall  across  the 
island  from  sea  to  sea  to  protect  the  province  than  to  try 
to  overcome  these  savages  of  Scotland. 

Another  Mighty  Wall. — The  first  wall  across  England 
was  of  earth,  but  later  a  solid  stone  wall  eighty  miles  long 
was  constructed.     It  was  from  six  to  ten  feet  thick  and 


KOMAIST    EMPIRE 


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ROME   CONQUERING   THE   WORLD 


29 


eighteen  feet  high,  with  a  mighty  ditch  on  the  north  or 
barbarian  side.  Beyond  this  wall  there  was  nothing  worth 
fighting  for,  because  the  battle,  even  if  the  Romans  won, 
would  have  to  be  fought  over  and  over  again.  These  old 
Picts  and  Scots,  if  beaten,  took  to  the  mountains,  but  were 
back  the  next  day  ready  for  another  trial  of  strength. 

The  World  Ruled  by  Rome.  —  To  the  Roman  empire, 
which  already  included  the  whole  civilized  world,  England 
was  now  added.  All  in  all,  the  empire  embraced  an  area 
as  large  as  the  United  States,  and  in  it  lived  one  hundred 
millions  of  people. 

Roman  Roads.  —  There  was  another  thing  besides  the 
bravery  of  her  soldiers  that  aided  Rome  in  conquering  and 


Cross  Section  of  a  Roman  Road. 


ruling  the  whole  civilized  world,  and  that  was  her  magnifi- 
cent roads.  They  were  the  most  solid  roads  that  the  world 
has  ever  known,  and  they  were  built  out  from  the  gates  of 
Rome  in  all  directions.  As  soon  as  the  soldiers  subdued  a 
new  country,  they  at  once  set  about  to  extend  these  fine 
roads  to  it.  The  Romans  knew  nothing  of  steam  or  elec- 
tricity, and  so  their  best  means  of  travel  was  a  good  wagon 
road.  Troops  and  supplies  for  the  army  had  to  move 
quickly  in  order  to  protect  such  wide  boundaries. 

Roads  Made  Straight.  —  The  quickest  roads  for  soldiers 
were,  of  course,  the  shortest,  and  so  these  military  roads 


30      DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

were  made  to  run  as  nearly  straight  as  possible.  They  cut 
through  hills,  they  bored  great  tunnels  through  mountains, 
and  they  spanned  wide  rivers  with  high  bridges  of  stone. 
The  arches  of  these  bridges  were  often  a  hundred  feet  high 
and  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet  wide.  The  Trajan  bridge  over 
the  Danube  was  more  than  a  mile  long. 

The  Claudian  Way.  —  After  two  thousand  years  of  use 
or  neglect,  some  of  these  fine  roads  are  still  good.     Some 


... 


A  Roman  Bridge. 

of  the  tunnels  are  also  used.  One  of  the  roads  in  service 
to-day  is  the  Claudian  Way.  It  was  three  hundred  and 
fifty  miles  long  and  paved  with  the  hardest  flint.  It  was 
broad  enough  for  two  carriages  to  pass  each  other.  The 
stone  flags  were  often  five  feet  square,  and  so  well  cemented 
together  that  they  appeared  but  one  stone.  Below  the 
stone  were  two  layers,  the  first  of  rough  stone  cemented 
with  mortar,  and  the  lower  layer  of  gravel.     These  layers 


ROME   CONQUERING  THE  WORLD  31 

measured  about  three  feet  thick,  and  were  well  bedded  in 
ground  that  had  been  first  leveled  and  beaten  hard. 

Conveniences  Along  the  Way.  —  The  roads  were  raised 
somewhat,  so  as  to  command  a  view  of  the  surrounding 
country.  On  either  side  were  stone  footpaths.  Measuring 
from  the  gates  of  Rome,  there  were  milestones  along  all 
roads  to  the  very  limits  of  the  empire.  On  each  of  those 
stones  was  marked  the  distance  from  the  capital.  At 
shorter  intervals  were  stones  for  travelers  to  rest  on,  or  to 
assist  them  in  mounting  horses.  In  later  days,  inns  were 
built  along  the  roads  a  half  day's  journey  apart,  where  fresh 
horses  were  kept  for  the  use  of  the  messengers  of  the  em- 
peror. Travelers  made  good  speed  on  these  stone  roads. 
Caesar  passed  from  the  Rhine  River  to  the  capital,  a 
distance  of  eight  hundred  miles,  in  eight  days.  Along  the 
roads  were  camps  or  forts,  about  which  towns  grew  up  for 
trade,  just  as  they  do  along  railroads  to-day.  These  splen- 
did roads  and  bridges  and  tunnels  were  built  by  the 
Roman  soldiers  during  days  of  peace. 

Provinces  Become  Romanized.  —  Without  the  roads 
Rome  could  not  have  held  her  vast  empire  together  for  a 
single  year.  With  them,  she  not  only  held  her  distant 
provinces  with  a  firm  grip,  but  she  extended  to  them  her 
just  laws,  her  fine  schools,  her  glorious  Latin  language,  and 
even  her  customs  and  manner  of  living.  So  the  provinces 
became  thoroughly  Romanized,  and  the  people  were  happy 
and  well  protected.  Rome  knew  how  to  rule  well.  Her 
good  laws  and  wise  judges  gave  out  justice  and  fair  treat- 
ment to  rich  and  poor  alike.  In  law  and  government,  Rome 
has  been  the  teacher  of  the  world. 

Country  Estates.  —  All  over  the  country  districts  were 
beautiful  villas  or  farm  homes  and  elegant  summer  resi- 
dences of  the  wealthy  city  folk.  .  The  land  was  held  in  great 


32       DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

estates  and  worked  by  hundreds  and  sometimes  thousands 
of  slaves  under  hired  overseers. 

Cities  of  the  Empire.  —  The  empire  was  dotted  with 
hundreds  of  great  cities ;  some,  like  Rome  and  Alexandria, 
were  nearly  as  large  as  the  city  of  Chicago  to-day.  Most 
of  the  people  lived  in  cities,  and  such  cities  as  they  were! 
We  think  it  wonderful  to-day  that  we  have  in  our  whole 
country  a  few  buildings  of  marble,  but  there  were  hundreds 
and  thousands  of  cities  in  the  Roman  empire  that  had 
marble  buildings  —  libraries,  temples,  baths,  and  palaces. 
Augustus  boasted  that  he  found  Rome  a  city  of  brick,  and 
left  it  a  city  of  marble. 

Commerce  Safe  and  Rapid.  —  Throughout  the  Roman 
world  commerce  was  safe.  Pirates  had  been  driven  from 
the  seas  and  robbers  from  the  land.  The  harbors  were 
crowded  with  ships,  and  the  Mediterranean  swarmed  with 
sails.  Between  Europe  and  Central  Asia,  there  was  a  flour- 
ishing commerce,  carried  along  three  great  routes :  one 
by  way  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  by  caravan  across  Asia; 
one  by  way  of  the  Suez  and  the  Red  Sea,  to  India ;  and  one 
by  caravan  across  Arabia.  From  frontier  to  frontier  travel 
and  trade  were  safe  and  rapid.  The  grand  military  roads 
ran  in  great  trunk  lines  from  every  frontier  toward  Rome. 
From  these  main  highways  ran  branch  roads  which  formed 
a  dense  network  in  every  province.  Routes  and  distances 
were  given  in  guidebooks,  and  there  were  many  hotels  along 
the  way.  Messengers  who  hurried  along  the  great  high- 
roads traveled  a  hundred  or  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  a  day. 
In  all  the  provinces,  rude  stockaded  villages  changed  into 
splendid  cities,  huts  into  palaces,  footpaths  into  paved 
Roman  roads.  The  Romans  watered  part  of  the  African 
desert  and  made  it  the  garden  of  the  world.  The  traveler 
of  to-day  may  see  the  ruins  amid  the  drifting  sand.     In 


ROME   CONQUERING   THE   WORLD 


33 


34       DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

Gaul  Caesar  found  no  real  towns  ;  in  the  third  century  that 
province  had  one  hundred  and  sixteen  flourishing  cities, 
with  their  baths,  temples,  amphitheaters,  works  of  art,  roads, 
aqueducts,  and  famous  schools  of  learning. 

Centuries  of  Peace.  ■ —  We  are  told  that  for  centuries 
the  entire  civilized  world  was  at  peace.  There  were  oc- 
casional wars  on  the  distant  frontiers,  but  the  millions  of 
Romans  throughout  the  empire  heard  and  saw  little  of  war. 
Thus  there  was  peace  and  prosperity  everywhere.  Never 
before  or  since  has  so  large  a  part  of  the  world  known  such 
a  long  time  of  unbroken  rest  from  the  horrors  and  waste 
of  war.  The  great  historian,  Gibbon,  said  that  he  would 
rather  have  lived  at  some  time  during  those  centuries  of 
peace  than  at  any  other  time  in  the  world's  history. 

The  Spread  of  a  New  Religion.  —  It  was  in  these  days, 
when  all  the  civilized  world  was  at  peace,  when  there  was 
one  language  and  one  law  for  all,  when  there  was  a  vast 
trade  and  unlimited  travel  among  all  parts  of  the  empire, 
that  Christ  lived  and  taught  and  was  crucified.  No  better 
time  could  have  been  chosen  for  the  spread  of  a  new  re- 
ligion. Rome  allowed  all  religions  in  the  empire.  People 
might  worship  as  they  pleased,  provided  only  that  they 
would  also  worship  the  emperor.  The  teachings  of  Jesus 
were  quickly  carried  by  missionaries  over  the  entire  Roman 
world.  At  first  only  the  lowly  and  the  poor  believed  in 
Jesus ;  but  as  the  centuries  passed,  the  rich  and  noble  classes 
began  to  accept  Christianity. 

Christians  Persecuted. —  Because  the  Christians  refused 
to  worship  the  emperor  or  to  celebrate  pagan  holidays,  the 
Roman  authorities  became  suspicious  of  them.  They 
were  blamed  when  barbarians  attacked  the  frontiers  or 
when  a  pestilence  broke  out,  for  it  was  said  these  things 
did  not  happen  when  the  Romans  worshipped  pagan  gods. 


ROME   CONQUERING  THE  WORLD 


35 


36      DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

Thus  public  opinion  called  for  a  persecution  of  Christians 
who  refused  to  worship  the  Roman  gods.  Once  when  a 
great  part  of  the  city  of  Rome  was  burned  to  the  ground, 
and  the  people  were  accusing  their  wicked  emperor,  Nero, 
of  ordering  it  done  so  that  he  might  build  it  up  again  more 
beautiful  than  before,  Nero  declared  that  the  Christians  had 
burned  the  city.     To  make  it  appear  that  he  was  innocent, 


Arch  of  Const antine. 

he  began  torturing  and  killing  the  Christians.  He  cov- 
ered their  bodies  with  tar  and  burned  them  at  night  as 
torches  in  his  imperial  gardens.  Some  he  wrapped  in  the 
skins  of  wild  beasts  and  threw  them  to  dogs  to  be  torn 
and  killed. 

Empire  Becomes  Christian.  —  The  more  the  Christians 
were  persecuted,  the  more  they  increased  in  numbers.  The 
Romans  had  ceased  to  believe  in  their  old  gods ;  and  as 
the  Christians  increased,  there  came  at  last  an  emperor  who 
gave  help  to  them.  Constantine,  hard  pressed  by  his 
rivals,  prayed  to  the  God  of  the  Christians  to  help  him  in 


ROME   CONQUERING   THE   WORLD  37 

the  battle  that  was  to  decide  the  supremacy  of  the  West- 
ern Empire.  He  made  the  cross  his  standard  and  pro- 
claiming himself  a  Christian  marched  to  battle.  With  the 
help  of  the  Christians  he  triumphed  over  his  rivals.  He 
granted  to  the  Christians  freedom  of  worship  and  made 
Sunday  a  day  of  rest.  And  now  at  last  Christianity  was 
tolerated  and  even  protected  by  law,  and  multitudes  of 
the  people  quickly  accepted  it. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Locate  Rome.  2.  How  was  it  protected  ?  3.  How  did  Rome 
first  gain  more  territory  ?  4.  Describe  the  fall  of  Carthage.  5.  Who 
had  built  up  Carthage  ?     6.   What  did  its  fall  mean  to  Rome  ? 

Greece  —  7.  Discuss  the  Greek  ways  of  living.  8.  What  were 
the  ideals  of  Greece  ?  9.  In  what  ways  was  she  superior  to  Rome  ? 
10.  Why  was  Rome  able  to  conquer  Greece  ?  11.  What  part  of  Greek 
civilization  was  absorbed  by  the  Romans  ?  12.  What  part  was  lost  ? 
13.  Of  what  gain  was  this  conquest  to  Rome  ?  14.  Is  it  a  fortunate 
or  unfortunate  thing  for  the  world  that  Rome  conquered  Greece? 
15.   Why? 

Pompey'sWork — 16.  What  kind  of  man  was  Pompey  ?  17.  What 
was  his  ambition?  18.  What  did  he  do  for  the  Roman  Empire? 
19.   How  was  he  honored  ? 

Cesar's  Work  —  20.  What  was  Caesar's  ambition  ?  21.  Wherein 
lay  his  power?  22.  Compare  him  with  Pompey.  23.  What  did  he 
add  to  the  Roman  Empire?  24.  Describe  his  campaign  in  Biitian. 
25.   What  became  of  Caesar  ? 

The  Roman  Empire  —  26.  At  the  height  of  its  power  what  was  the 
size  of  the  Roman  Empire  ?  27.  What  were  its  boundaries  ?  28.  On 
which  boundaries  was  there  great  need  of  protection?  29.  Why? 
30.  How  did  Rome  protect  herself  from  the  barbarians  ?  31,  How 
did  she  hold  her  land  ?  32.  Why  did  Rome  keep  shifting  her  legions 
from  one  place  to  another  ? 

Roads  —  33.  What  need  was  there  for  good  roads?  34.  How 
were  they  made  ?  35.  To  what  use  were  they  put  ?  36.  What  con- 
veniences were  there  along  the  roads  ?  37.  How  did  people  travel 
over   them?     38.    Show  how   they  affected   the  growth  of   towns. 


38       DAWN   OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

39.  What  is  the  meaning  of  Romanizing  the  provinces  ?  40.  Tell 
four  ways  in  which  Rome  did  this.  41.  What  do  you  think  were  the 
most  important  ideas  that  she  spread  ?  42.  During  her  long  peace 
period,  how  did  Rome  grow?  43.  Describe  her  towns.  44.  What 
in  them  came  from  Greece?  45.  Describe  the  old  country  estates. 
46.   What  other  names  were  there  for  them  ? 


CHAPTER   III 

HOW   THE   ROMANS   LIVED 

The  Romans  Loved  Beautiful  Things.  —  From  their  con- 
tact with  the  noble  art  and  architecture  of  the  Greeks,  the 
Romans  learned  to  love  beautiful  things.     They  were  soon 


The  Fates  —  Greek  Art. 


found  copying  and  imitating  the  beauty  of  Greek  art ;  but 
it  was  merely  copying,  for  the  Romans  never  succeeded  in 
producing  much  that  could  be  called  original. 

Art,  Architecture,  and  Learning.  —  In  every  city  and  home 
there  were  educated  Greek  slaves.  They  were  far  above 
their  Roman  masters  in  learning  and  culture,  and  they  be- 
came the  teachers  of  the  Roman  youths.  In  this  way  the 
learning  and  art  of  Greece  were  scattered  over  the  Roman 
world.  Wherever  the  victorious  legions  marched,  they 
carried  these  wonderful  gifts  of  the  Greeks.     And  so  the 

39 


40      DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 


whole  empire  came  to  love  books  and  learning,  as  well  as  the 
comforts  and  luxuries  first  found  in  the  cities  of  Greece. 

Mosaics.  -The  Romans 
were  soon  decorating  their 
buildings  with  splendid  stat- 
uary, beautiful  paintings,  and 
especially  with  wonderful  mo- 
saic pictures.  These  mosaics 
were  made  of  small  cubes  of 
colored  glass  or  stone,  so  put 
together  as  to  make  beautiful 
pictures.  Sometimes  a  series 
of  such  mosaics  were  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  tell  a  complete 
story ;  for  example,  a  fable 
with  perhaps  a  fox  stealing 
chickens  to  represent  night,  or 
a  crowing  cock  to  indicate 
morning.     These  costly  mosaics  were  used  for  decorating 


A  Roman  Mosaic  Pavement. 


HOW  THE   ROMANS   LIVED 


41 


floors  and  walls,  not  only  in  public  buildings  but  in  the 
best  private  homes. 

Common  Workmen  were  Artists.  —  Even  the  plainer 
homes  had  their  marble  busts  and  statuary,  and  their 
walls  were  decorated  with  splendid  paintings  instead  of 
wall  paper.  There  was  such  an  enormous  public  demand 
for  artistic  things  that  many  artists  were  needed.  Even 
the  common  people  became 
good  judges  of  art,  and 
everybody  was  glad  to 
lend  a  touch  of  beauty  to 
whatever  he  possessed. 
The  common  workmen  and 
decorators  knew  enough  of 
art  to  paint  copies  of  fa- 
mous pictures  on  the  plaster 
walls  of  the  poorer  homes 
that  they  decorated.  We 
Americans  are  far,  far  be- 
hind the  Romans  in  our 
ability  to  make  and  to  ap- 
preciate beautiful  things. 

Roman  Monuments.  —  What  books  and  printing  are  to 
us,  art  and  architecture  were  to  Romans.  They  recorded 
great  deeds,  not  so  much  by  writing  them  down  in  books, 
as  by  building  magnificent  arches  and  columns  and  monu- 
ments to  commemorate  them. 

How  Work  was  Divided.  —  In  the  cities  the  people  lived 
very  much  as  we  would  be  living  to-day  if  we  did  not  know 
about  steam  and  electricity.  They  divided  up  their  work. 
There  were  mechanics,  engineers,  physicians,  dentists, 
teachers,  barbers,  bakers,  and  merchants  and  traders  of  all 
sorts.     These  trades  and  professions  were  carried  on  by 


A  Roman  Wall  Painting. 


42       DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 


slaves  and  by  men  who  had  once  been  slaves.  Roman 
citizens  thought  that  all  work  was  unbecoming  to  them  ex- 
cept that  of  a  lawyer,  an  officer,  a  soldier,  or  the  master 
of  an  estate.  Even  teaching  and  medicine  were  practiced 
only  by  Greek  slaves  or  freedmen. 

Books  of  the  Romans.  —  There  were  no  printing  machines 
or  movable  type  in  those  days,  so  all  books  were  made  by 
copying  with  pen  and  ink.  Thousands  of  slaves  were  thus 
kept  busy  making  new  books,  and,  it  is  said,  they  became 

cheap  because  the  slaves 
learned  to  copy  so  fast. 
Books  were  sometimes  writ- 
ten on  parchment,  or  sheep- 
skin, but  these  were  expensive. 
The    common   material    used 


Reading  a  Roman  Book. 


was  papyrus. 

How  Paper  was  Made.  — 

Paper  was  made  from  the  pith 
of  the  papyrus  plants.  The 
pith  was  cut  into  strips,  and 
these  were  placed  side  by  side 
upon  a  wet  board  and  pasted 
together.  A  second  layer  was  placed  upon  this  with  the 
strips  running  the  other  way.  These  two  layers  were  then 
pressed  into  paper  and  dried.  There  were  as  many  as 
nine  kinds  of  paper,  from  the  best  quality  of  letter  paper 
to  common  wrapping  paper. 

Queer  Books.  —  Sheets  of  this  paper  were  pasted  together 
to  make  long  rolls  on  which  books  were  written,  in  columns. 
A  book  roll  was  often  a  hundred  feet  long.  In  reading,  the 
roll  was  held  in  both  hands,  to  be  unrolled  by  one  and  rolled 
up  by  the  other,  as  the  reader  progressed. 

Writing  Letters   and   Messages.  —  When   the   Romans 


HOW   THE   ROMANS   LIVED 


43 


wrote  messages  and  letters  that  they  did  not  wish  to  pre- 
serve, they  used  tablets  or  squares  of  thin  wood  covered  with 
wax.  On  this  they  wrote  with  a  metal  stylus  about  the 
size  of  a  pencil,  pointed  at  one  end  for  writing  in  the  wax, 
and  flat  at  the  other  for  erasing,  or  smoothing  away  the 
letters.  Several  of  these  tablets  made  up  a  letter  and  were 
tied  together  and  sent  by  a  messenger.  The  same  tablets 
were  used  to  send  back  a  reply. 

Schools  and  Education.  —  In  the  early  days  of  Rome 
there  were  no  public  schools.     The  sons  of  Romans  were 


An  Old  Roman  School. 


tutored  privately.  But  both  public  and  private  schools 
were  established  later,  in  which  reading,  writing,  simple 
arithmetic,  and  Latin  literature  were  studied.  They 
taught  much  public  speaking  and  elocution,  because 
this  was  needed  in  public  life.  A  good  speaker  was 
sure  to  be  in  favor  among  the  people.  Having  no  news- 
papers, the  Romans  got  most  of  their  information  from 
speakers. 


44       DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY   IN  EUROPE 

Going  Abroad  to  Study.  —  The  sons  of  the  wealthy  went 
to  Greece  to  study.  They  learned  to  speak  Greek  as  well 
as  their  native  Latin  language.  Each  boy  was  accompanied 
to  and  from  school  by  a  slave  whom  they  called  pedagogas. 
Education  was  for  the  Roman  citizens  only.  The  slaves 
had  no  chance,  except  a  few  promising  ones  who  were  wanted 
for  clerks.  Above  the  grammar  schools  were  the  great 
universities ;  one  at  Rome,  famous  for  law ;  one  at  Alex- 
andria, famous  for  its  medical  school ;   and  one  at  Athens. 

Romans  Loved  a  Good  Time.  —  The  emperor  gradually 
took  the  government  out  of  the  hands  of  the  people,  and 
since  all  work  was  done  by  slaves,  the  Romans  came  to 
spend  much  time  in  amusements.  In  daytime  they  might 
be  found  at  the  theater,  the  games,  in  the  forum,  or  at  the 
baths. 

Public  Baths.  —  The  Romans  built  magnificent  baths 
in  every  city  in  the  empire.  By  bathing  twice  a  day  they 
thought  they  could  make  two  days  out  of  one,  and  thus 
double  the  length  of  their  lives.  Some  took  as  many  as  a 
dozen  baths  in  a  summer's  day,  with  banquets  at  the 
homes  of  friends  between.  They  could  be  seen  clad  in 
bathing  costumes  going  back  and  forth  from  the  homes  of 
friends  to  the  public  baths. 

Magnificence  and  Comforts  of  Baths.  —  The  baths  were 
of  all  kinds,  some  simple,  and  some  with  every  possible 
luxury.  The  walls  were  adorned  with  gorgeous  mosaics, 
and  water  flowed  from  solid  silver  taps  into  basins  of  marble. 
Water  was  provided  at  all  temperatures.  There  were  rooms 
for  gymnasiums,  restaurants,  libraries,  picture  galleries ; 
there  were  lounging  rooms  and  shops  for  the  sale  of  per- 
fumes. There  were  magnificent  private  baths  also,  but 
even  the  emperors  frequently  used  those  open  to  the  public. 
Emperor  Severus  was  often  seen  returning  to  his  palace  in 


HOW  THE   ROMANS   LIVED 


45 


bathing  costume,  bearing  no  mark  of  his  rank  save  his  purple 
cloak. 

Slaves  rubbed  the  bodies  of  their  masters  and  afterward 
applied  oil  and  perfume  to  them.  So  large  and  so  numerous 
were  the  baths  of  Rome,  that  sixty  thousand  people  could  be 


Ruins  of  the  Aqueducts,  Rome. 

cared  for  daily.     Ruins  of  these  splendid  baths  have  been 
found  under  every  sky  throughout  the  empire. 

City  Water  Systems.  —  To  supply  these  numerous  baths, 
water  was  brought  to  the  city  by  great  aqueducts,  through 
which  rivers  flowed  from  distant  mountains  into  the  city 
water   system.     As   the   baths  increased  in   number   new 


46       DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

aqueducts  were  needed,  until  there  were  at  Rome  twenty  in 
all,  the  longest  being  forty-five  miles.  Nothing  that  the 
Romans  built,  except  their  splendid  roads,  gives  clearer 
proof  of  their  greatness.  The  aqueducts  were  usually 
built  beneath  the  surface;  but  when  a  valley  was  to  be 
crossed,  they  were  supported  on  huge  stone  arches,  some 
of  which  were  more  than  one  hundred  feet  high.  The 
tunnels  of  some  of  these  aqueducts  through  which  the  water 
flowed  were  so  large  that  a  man  might  ride  through  them 
on  horseback.  So  well  were  these  aqueducts  built,  that 
now  after  many,  many  centuries,  some  of  them  are  still 
standing,  and  they  have  been  repaired  so  as  to  supply  the 
city  with  water  from  the  far-off  hills. 

The  Circus. — The  Romans  had  their  circus,  where  chariot 
races  were  held,  and  such  feats  were  performed  as  we  see 
in  a  modern  circus.  Everybody  attended  the  races.  Some 
gambled  on  them.  The  Great  Circus  would  seat  many 
thousand  people.  Riots  sometimes  broke  out  here.  On 
one  occasion  thirty  thousand  rioters  are  said  to  have  been 
killed  in  the  tumult. 

Who  Paid  the  Bill.  —  But  chariot  races  after  a  time  did 
not  interest  the  lazy  Roman  people.  To  entertain  the  mob, 
great  amphitheaters  were  built  where  men,  called  gladiators, 
and  wild  beasts  fought  to  the  death.  The  people  looked 
upon  games  as  a  debt  owed  them  by  the  politicians  and  the 
rulers.  Anybody  who  wished  to  win  favor  among  the 
people  provided  games  or  races,  which  were  free  to  all. 
Almost  any  event  served  as  an  excuse  for  them,  even  a 
doubtful  victory  on  the  far-off  frontiers. 

Street  Parades.  —  Sometimes  a  general  who  wished  to 
celebrate  a  victory  and  win  favor  among  the  people  ar- 
ranged for  a  splendid  procession  before  the  game.  In  one 
procession  the  common  people  and  soldiers  marched  to  the 


HOW  THE   ROMANS  LIVED  47 

capital  in  white  cloaks,  followed  by  women  and  slaves, 
bearing  wax  tapers  and  lamps.  In  the  procession  were  a 
hundred  white  oxen,  two  hundred  white  sheep,  ten  ele- 
phants, twelve  hundred  gladiators,  and  two  hundred  domes- 
tic animals,  besides  troupes  of  actors.  On  such  occasions 
the  city  took  a  holiday  and  enjoyed  the  splendid  pageant. 
Wild  Beasts  from  the  End  of  the  Earth.  —  At  first  only 
wild  animals  fought  in  the  amphitheater.     Wild  animals 


ffiPltefa 

aHfiwBWw* 

'**'Vi 

^.g^jfl 

i jBj^HK^HftMl^  ci 

-v   -    .      ,        •■..   ■      -;.P             '■•                           V*>'     /     " 

Interior  of  the  Coliseum. 

from  every  corner  of  the  world  were  turned  loose  to  tear  one 
another  to  pieces,  while  a  hundred  thousand  men  and  women 
in  holiday  attire  looked  on.  There  were  lions  and  tigers, 
leopards  and  elephants,  from  the  jungles  of  Africa  and  Asia ; 
there  were  bears  from  the  frozen  north,  and  monsters  from 
the  sea. 

Animals  in  the  Arena.  —  Underneath  the  great  amphi- 
theater were  cages  for  the  wild  beasts.  At  a  signal,  the 
cages  were  brought  up  on  an  elevator,  the  doors  were  thrown 


48       DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

open,  and  the  animals  leaped  out  into  the  arena.  Several 
hundred  lions  sometimes  tore  one  another  to  pieces  in  one 
spectacle.  Augustus  tells  us  that  in  twenty-six  exhibitions 
given  by  him,  thirty-five  hundred  animals  were  killed  in  the 
amphitheater.  On  one  occasion,  when  the  Coliseum  was  com- 
pleted, five  thousand  animals  were  slain  in  one  day.  The 
Coliseum  would  seat  many  thousand  spectators.  The  arena 
was  large  enough  for  several  hundred  animals  to  fight  at  one 
time.  It  was  covered  with  sand,  but  there  were  water  pipes 
beneath,  and  it  could  be  flooded  for  monsters  of  the  ocean, 
or  for  naval  fights. 

Men  and  Beasts  Fight.  —  But  the  worst  combats  of  the 
amphitheater  were  those  of  men  —  gladiators  they  called 
them.  Gladiators  were  usually  slaves,  captives,  or  crim- 
inals. Sometimes  even  Roman  citizens  entered  the  arena 
for  money,  but  by  so  doing  they  lost  their  standing  among 
respectable  people.  Untold  numbers  of  men  were  killed 
in  these  combats.  After  one  great  Roman  victory,  games 
and  shows  continued  for  one  hundred  and  twenty-three 
days,  in  which  eleven  thousand  animals  of  different  kinds 
were  killed  and  ten  thousand  gladiators  fought.  Some- 
times the  men  fought  beasts,  but  the  gladiators  also  fought 
with  one  another. 

Thumbs  Down,  He  Dies. — The  gladiators  at  first  fought 
a  sham  battle  with  wooden  swords,  and  then  at  a  signal 
of  the  trumpet,  they  took  up  their  steel  armor  and  rushed 
at  each  other  with  the  sharpest  swords.  They  fought  until 
one  lowered  his  arms  as  a  sign  that  he  was  vanquished. 
The  victor  then  turned  to  the  spectators  to  know  if  they 
wished  him  to  spare  the  life  of  his  opponent.  If  the  spec- 
tators wished  the  man  to  be  slain,  they  turned  their  thumbs 
down ;  if  they  wished  him  to  be  spared,  they  turned  their 
thumbs  up.     After  each  combat,  whether  of  beasts  or  men, 


HOW  THE   ROMANS   LIVED 


49 


slaves  entered  the  arena  with  hooks  and  dragged  out  the 
dead  and  those  mortally  wounded. 

There  were  schools  for  the  training  of  these  gladiators, 
who  were  in  great  demand  in  every  large  city  of  that  great 
empire.  Sometimes  a  gladiator  was  given  his  freedom 
because  he  had  succeeded  in  killing  his  opponents  in  combat. 
Not  only  city  people  attended  these  games,  but  country 


In  the  Arena. 

people  for  miles  around  came  flocking  by  the  thousands  to 
them,  as  people  do  nowadays  to  a  league  ball  game  or  to 
the  circus. 

The  Scramble  for  Tickets.  —  At  the  close  of  these  state 
games,  presents  were  given  to  the  common  people.  Nero, 
on  one  occasion,  threw  tickets  for  all  sorts  of  things  into 
the  crowd  for  it  to  scramble  for.  There  were  tickets  for 
corn,  for  articles  of  food,  for  birds,  for  money,  pearls,  pic- 
tures ;   tickets  for  horses,  cows,  ships,  and  even  for  houses 


50       DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

and  lands.  There  was  a  terrible  scramble  for  them,  and 
many  were  hurt.  Respectable  folk  usually  went  home  be- 
fore the  distribution  began. 

Rome's  Greatest  Evil.  —  But  the  crowning  evil  of  these 
later  Romans  was  human  slavery.  Some  slaves  they  ob- 
tained by  war,  some  by  way  of  punishment  for  crime,  and 
some  were  born  in  slavery.  On  one  occasion  ten  thou- 
sand were  bought  in  a  single  day  on  the  island  of  Delos. 
Enemies  of  Rome  who  surrendered  willingly  were  allowed 
their  freedom,  but  those  who  were  taken  in  the  field  or 
while  storming  cities  were  sold  at  auction.  After  the  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem,  Titus  sold  ninety-seven  thousand  Jews 
into  slavery. 

Large  Number  of  Slaves.  —  The  Roman  slaves  were  not 
dull,  degraded  savages  or  negroes.  They  were  white  men, 
and  often  highly  educated.  Many  of  them  were  superior 
even  to  their  masters  in  learning  and  culture.  They 
brought  prices  ranging  from  $25  for  a  common  drudge  to 
$10,000  for  a  fine  cook,  a  steward,  or  a  clown.  The  number 
of  slaves  in  Rome  and  Italy  was  very  large.  Some  rich 
Romans  had  several  thousands  —  so  many  that  they  did 
not  even  know  their  names. 

Indoor  Work  of  Slaves.  —  Slaves  waited  at  table.  Some 
put  the  plates  in  order,  some  gave  the  guests  water  and 
towels  to  wash  and  wipe  their  hands,  some  served  the  bread, 
some  brought  in  the  food  and  set  the  cups,  some  carved, 
and  some  served  wine.  In  hot  weather  slaves  cooled  the 
room  with  fans  and  drove  away  the  flies.  There  were 
slaves  to  dress  the  hair,  others  for  shaving;  slaves  for 
cutting  the  nails,  and  slaves  to  put  on  the  master's  shoes. 
Every  great  household  had  its  physicians,  artists,  secre- 
taries, librarians,  copyists;  its  teachers,  readers,  authors, 
and  philosophers ;  and  they  were  all  slaves. 


HOW  THE   ROMANS   LIVED 


51 


On  the  Street.  —  When  masters  were  invited  out  to  dine, 
slaves  carried  their  slippers  and  other  articles  of  dress  that 
were  needed.  In  their  walks  about  the  city  each  master 
had  a  slave  to  tell  him  of  approaching  acquaintances  and  to 
whisper  their  names  in  his  ear. 

Other  Work  of  Slaves.  —  Not  only  did  slaves  do  all  the 
domestic  work,  but  they  were  employed  in  trades  and  manu- 
factories, and  they  raised  the  crops  and  took  care  of  the 
great  estates.  They  were  promoted  according  to  behavior 
from  such  positions  as  that  of  drudge  or  common  slave  in 
town  to  that  of  overseer  in  the  country.  In  the  later  days 
of  the  empire  slaves  were  employed  on  public  works,  such 
as  building  bridges,  cleaning  sewers,  and  keeping  up  the 
aqueducts. 

How  Slaves  were  Treated.  —  Slaves  were  not  allowed  to 
wear  the  clothing  of  free  citizens,  but  must  dress  according 
to  law  so  that  they  could  be  easily  recognized.  They  were 
not  allowed  to  marry.  On  the  great  estates  it  was  difficult 
to  oversee  so  many  and  keep  them  from  running  away.  So 
they  were  chained  together  while  they  toiled  in  the  fields 
and  while  they  slept.  The  master  had  absolute  power  over 
them,  just  as  though  they  were  his  cattle.  He  might  whip 
them  or  put  them  to  death.  The  common  punishment 
was  with  the  lash,  but  they  were  sometimes  branded  on  the 
forehead  with  a  red-hot  iron.  Sometimes  they  were  shut 
up  in  a  workhouse  and  made  to  turn  a  mill  for  grinding 
corn.  When  slaves  were  beaten,  they  were  sometimes  sus- 
pended, and  a  weight  tied  to  the  feet  so  they  might  not 
flinch.  In  case  they  were  to  be  killed,  they  were  usually 
nailed  to  a  cross.  There  were,  however,  many  good  mas- 
ters, whose  slaves  were  well  treated  and  happy.  Many  pur- 
chased their  freedom.  Cicero  said  that  a  diligent  slave 
could  earn  enough  in  six  years  to  become  a  free  man. 


52      DAWN  OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

Later  Romans  Lazy  and  Worthless.  —  The  early  Romans 
lived  pure  and  simple  lives.  So  brave  and  patriotic  were 
they,  as  you  have  read,  that  they  became  masters  of  the 
whole  civilized  world.  But  now  after  many  centuries,  the 
later  Romans  were  becoming  lazy,  wicked,  and  worthless. 
They  loved  pleasure  and  amusements,  and  were  more  eager 
for  wealth  and  high  society  than  for  honor  and  bravery. 


A  Roman  Dining  Room. 

Later  Romans  Neither  Work  nor  Fight.  —  Not  only  did 
the  later  Romans  load  all  their  work  upon  slaves,  but  now 
at  last  they  would  neither  rule  their  country  well,  nor  would 
they  fight  to  protect  it  from  the  barbarians.  The  empire 
had  become  a  mere  shell.  On  every  side  savage  hordes  were 
breaking  in  to  rob,  to  murder,  and  to  burn.  Why  did  not 
the  Romans  call  out  a  mighty  army,  as  they  had  done  in 
the  olden  days,  and  hold  the  line  of  the  two  rivers  so  that  not 
a  German  should  set  foot  across  it  ?  The  Romans  were  no 
longer  willing  to  do  this,  because  they  enjoyed  life  so  much 


HOW   THE   ROMANS   LIVED 


53 


in  their  theaters,  their  circuses,  their  baths,  and  their  beau- 
tiful villas  in  the  country  or  at  the  seashore,  that  they  no 
longer  cared  to  go  into  the  army.  So  worthless  were  they, 
that  they  had  ceased  to  love  their  country  and  their  Roman 
eagles  enough  to  fight  for  them.  Instead  they  preferred 
to  hire  some  one  else  to  do  their  righting. 

Young  Men  Avoid  the  Army.  —  The  government  raised 
the  pay  of  soldiers  until  all  the  money  in  the  treasury  was 
gone,  hoping  to  make  the  soldier's  life  attractive  to  young 
Romans.  Lands  were  given  to  the  veterans,  and  other 
favors  shown  to  soldiers;  but  all  this  failed  to  draw  the 
lazy  Romans  into  the  army.  Then  laws  were  made,  forc- 
ing every  Roman  proprietor  either  to  go  himself,  to  hire  a 
substitute,  or  to  pay  a  heavy  fine  of  forty-two  pieces  of 
silver.  But  many  of  the  young  men  of  Italy  chose  to  cut 
off  the  fingers  of  their  right  hand  so  that  they  could  not 
hold  their  weapons  rather  than  enter  the  army. 

Who  the  Hired  Soldiers  Were.  —  So  the  only  thing  to  do 
was  to  hire  soldiers,  and  the  best  soldiers  to  be  hired  were 
our  Germans.  "  They  did  not  have  to  ask  leave  of  any 
ruler;  often  they  came,  rulers  and  all,  across  the  border, 
and  hired  themselves  for  money  to  the  Roman  generals. 
It  mattered  little  if  they  were  then  employed  to  fight  against 
their  own  brothers.  They  earned  their  pay,  saw  the  world, 
and  went  home  to  fill  the  ears  and  the  eyes  of  their  kinsmen 
with  the  wonderful  story  of  the  precious  spoils  of  Rome. 
Or,  they  stayed  in  the  army,  and  rose  to  high  positions,  so 
that  from  the  fourth  century  on,  we  find  the  very  highest 
posts  in  the  army  and  in  the  government  filled  by  men 
whose  fathers  lived  the  life  of  the  German  barbarian." 

Love  of  Kin.  —  These  barbarians  became  every  day  more 
dangerous  to  Rome.  Goths  and  other  Germans  were  en- 
rolled in  the  legions  and  given  places  of  high  command. 


54       DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

They  often  invited  their  wilder  relatives  to  come  over  and 
plunder  Roman  provinces,  and  then  managed  to  let  them 
escape  unhurt. 

Taxes.  —  It  took  so  much  gold  to  pay  the  legions  of 
soldiers,  and  such  a  vast  amount  of  money  to  run  the  govern- 
ment with  its  host  of  dishonest  officers  and  its  costly  shows, 
that  the  taxes  ate  up  everything  that  the  farmers  made. 
Farmers  preferred  to  become  beggars  rather  than  to  toil 
hard  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  and  then  to  see  everything 
snatched  from  them  for  taxes.  They  lost  interest  in  farm- 
ing and  abused  the  soil.  The  worn-out  farms  were  finally 
abandoned.  Beggars  increased  by  the  thousands  and  be- 
came such  a  danger  that  the  government  had  to  furnish 
them  with  free  corn  to  prevent  trouble,  besides  entertain- 
ing them  with  costly  shows.  Conditions  were  growing 
worse  every  year. 

A  New  Way  to  get  Money.  —  The  Romans  had  forgotten 
how  to  rule.  When  taxes  failed  to  bring,  in  money  enough, 
the  worthless  emperor  devised  a  new  way.  Wealthy  people 
were  put  to  death  by  the  wicked  Nero  so  that  he  might  have 
their  money.  He  built  his  Golden  House  by  causing  the 
death  of  rich  men  and  taking  their  property.  He  ordered 
his  old  teacher,  Seneca,  to  commit  suicide  for  this  very 
purpose. 

Tax  Dodgers  and  Taxgatherers.  —  When  the  rulers  were 
so  wicked,  their  officers,  by  the  hundred,  practiced  what 
we  call  "  graft"  ;  that  is,  took  money  that  did  not  belong  to 
them.  Rich  men  dodged  taxes ;  and  the  poor  could  not 
pay.  What  money  was  turned  in  from  taxes  was  largely 
stolen  by  the  taxgatherers,  who  became  so  numerous,  that 
it  was  said  that  there  were  more  taxgatherers  than  tax- 
payers. So  the  empire  could  neither  get  men  to  fight  for  it 
nor  money  to  pay  its  debts.     The  Roman  empire  was  now 


HOW  THE  ROMANS  LIVED 


55 


56      DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

no  longer  fit  to  live.  "  Like  an  old  tree,  whose  every  root 
is  decayed,  it  did  not  fall  simply  because  the  storm  had  not 
yet  come." 

The  Shell  is  Broken.  —  But  now  swarms  of  barbarians 
were  sweeping  over  the  frontiers.  Everywhere  they  found 
an  easy  victory  and  wonderful  spoils.  Tribe  after  tribe 
followed  until  they  took  possession  of  the  great  Roman 
empire  and  made  it  their  own. 

QUESTIONS 

i.  Describe  the  beautiful  decorations  used  in  the  homes,  public 
buildings,  and  streets.  2.  Who  did  this  decorating?  3.  What  was 
the  influence  upon  the  people  ?  4.  Where  have  we  like  decorations  ? 
5.  What  occupations  did  the  people  follow  ?  6.  Describe  the  Roman 
books.  7.  Describe  the  Roman  paper.  8.  Describe  the  Roman 
schools.  9.  Who  were  the  teachers  ?  10.  What  was  taught  ? 
11.   Who  were  the  speakers?     12.    Of  what  importance  were  they? 

13.  When    was    Christianity    brought    into    the    Roman    Empire? 

14.  How  was  it  spread  ?  15.  How  and  why  were  the  Christians  per- 
secuted? 16.  When  did  the  empire  turn  Christian  ?  17.  Tell  four 
ways  in  which  Christianity  raises  the  civilization  of  a  country. 

Amusements  — 18.  Describe  the  circus.  19.  Describe  the  pa- 
rades. 20.  Describe  the  arena  fights.  21.  Who  were  the  gladiators  ? 
22.  What  do  you  think  was  the  effect  of  these  amusements  upon 
the  people?  23.  Describe  the  baths.  24.  Where  did  the  water 
supply  come  from  ? 

Slaves  —  25.  Why  did  the  Romans  have  slaves  ?  26.  WThere  did 
they  get  them  ?  27.  To  what  class  of  people  did  these  slaves  belong  ? 
28.  What  work  did  they  do  ?  29.  How  were  they  treated  ?  30.  Were 
these  slaves  good  for  the  Romans?     31.   Why?  or,  why  not? 

Rome  Weakened  —  32.  Why  did  Rome  hire  soldiers  ?  ^t,.  Where 
did  she  hire  them?  34.  How  did  she  raise  money  to  pay  them? 
35.  What  was  the  effect  of  hiring  soldiers  upon  Rome?  36.  What 
was  the  beggar  class?  37.  How  did  Rome  come  to  have  a 
beggar  class?  38.  Give  five  causes  of  Rome's  weakness.  39.  What 
was  the  greatest  cause?  40.  To  what  is  the  weakness  of  Rome 
compared?  41.  What  was  "the  storm"?  42.  Why  did  Rome 
fall  ?     43.    Give  as  many  reasons  as  you  can. 


CHAPTER   IV 
BARBARIANS   DESTROYING   THE   EMPIRE 

Fleeing  from  the  Huns.  —  The  West  Goths,  a  tribe  of 
Teutons  who  dwelt  along  the  north  bank  of  the  Danube,  near 
the  Black  Sea,  were  being  driven  southward  by  hordes  of 
savage  Huns.  In  the  year  of  375  the  Goths  came  down  to 
the  bank  of  the  river  and  begged  the  Romans  to  let  them 
cross  over  into  the  empire  for  safety  from  their  savage  ene- 
mies. 

Who  the  Huns  Were.  —  The  Huns  were  frightful  little 
men  who  swept  over  the  country  like  a  whirlwind,  leaving 
only  destruction  behind  them.  Their  hair  was  worn  long 
and  tied  in  a  knot  behind.  Their  noses  were  so  much 
turned  up  that  the  frightened  Romans  fancied  they  had 
nothing  but  two  holes  in  the  middle  of  their  faces.  The 
Goths  said  the  Huns  were  children  of  witches  and  demons, 
that  they  were  pig-eyed,  hideous  beings,  with  cakes  instead 
of  faces,  wearing  "  ratskin  caps,  armed  with  arrows  tipped 
with  bone,  and  lassos  of  cord ;  eating,  marketing,  sleeping 
on  horseback,  so  grown  into  the  saddle  that  they  could 
hardly  walk  in  their  huge  boots."  With  them  were  tribes 
who  painted  their  hair  and  skin  blue,  others  who  carried 
shields  made  of  horses'  hoofs,  and  decked  their  horses  with 
human  scalps;  and  still  others,  armed  with  scythes  and 
wrapped  in  cloaks  of  human  skin.  So  fierce  were  these 
savage  Huns  that  nothing  could  resist  their  wild  charges. 

The  Goths  at  School.  —  The  West  Goths,  or  Visigoths, 
who  were  now  seeking  entrance  into  the  empire,  were  by 

57 


58      DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 


far  the  most  advanced  of  all  the  barbarian  tribes  in  their 
manner  of  living.  From  the  long  years  of  close  touch  with 
the  Roman  empire,  with  only  the  Danube  between  them  and 

civilized  life, 
they  had 
put  aside 
many  of 
their  wild 
customs  and 
rude  man- 
ners, and 
had  learned 
to  behave 
somewhat 
like  civilized 
people. 

The  Goths 
had  crossed 
over  this  river 
more  than 
once  and  had 
taken  rich 
cities.  They 
had  fought  so 
well  with  im- 
proved weap- 
ons that  the 
Roman  em- 
peror had  been  forced  to  buy  them  off.  They  had  built  flat- 
bottomed  boats,  and  with  a  fleet  of  five  hundred  ships  had 
sailed  along  the  Roman  shores  of  the  Black  and  Mediterra- 
nean seas,  learning  new  customs,  and  ravaging  as  they  went. 
They  had  penetrated  into  Greece  and  Athens,  had  looted  the 


Irene  and  Plutus. 


BARBARIANS   DESTROYING  THE   EMPIRE 


59 


beautiful  Parthenon,  the  treasure  house  of  Greek  art,  and 
had  been  driven  out  with  difficulty.  In  all  this  contact  with 
Roman  life,  they  had  seen  and  learned  many  things. 

Goths  Make  Good  Promises.  — The  West  Goths  had  even 
received  Christian  missionaries  and  become,  after  a  fashion, 
Christians.  They  were  now  asking  the  Christian  Romans 
to  receive  them  as  brothers  and  to  protect  them  from  being 


Constantinople  and  the  Bosporus.    Asia  Minor  across  the  Strait. 

cut  to  pieces  by  the  savage  Huns.  They  promised  that  if 
they  were  permitted  to  come  across  into  the  empire,  they 
would  become  peaceable  and  loyal  Romans  and  join  their 
army  to  that  of  the  emperor. 

The  Emperor  Gives  Permission. — The  Roman  emperor, 
whose  capital,  since  the  days  of  Constantine,  had  been  at 
Constantinople,  hesitated  a  little  to  admit  so  near  his 
capital  such  a  multitude  of  barbarians.     However,  since 


60       DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

he,  too,  dreaded  the  Huns  and  needed  more  soldiers,  he 
allowed  them  to  come  over.  But  they  were  forced  to  give 
up  their  arms  and  to  deliver  the  children  of  their  chieftains 
to  the  Romans  to'  be  educated. 

The  Goths  Inside  the  Empire.  —  Many  days  were  con- 
sumed in  getting  the  multitudes  of  Goths  across  the  Danube, 
which  is,  at  that  point,  over  a  mile  wide.  So  great  was  their 
number  that  those  who  were  set  to  count  them  gave  up  in 
despair.  Including  men,  women,  and  children  they  were 
said  to  be  a  million  strong.  They  gave  up  their  children, 
but  bribed  the  corrupt  Roman  officers  to  let  them  keep  their 
beloved  weapons. 

The  Greedy  Roman  Governors.  —  Land  was  set  apart 
for  the  Goths,  but  food  had  to  be  furnished  them  for  a  time, 
until  they  could  cultivate  their  land  and  raise  a  crop.  The 
funds  sent  by  the  emperor  to  buy  them  food  were  pocketed 
by  the  greedy  and  corrupt  Roman  governors  who,  instead, 
sold  the  starving  Goths  dog  flesh  at  terrible  prices.  For 
a  little  good  meat  they  charged  the  Germans  outrageous 
sums.  When  their  money  was  all  gone,  the  Goths  had  to 
sell  their  children  into  slavery  or  starve. 

While  the  Romans  were  off  guard  along  the  Danube,  the 
entire  nation  of  East  Goths  dashed  across  the  river  boundary, 
arms  in  hand,  and  demanded  for  themselves  the  same  favors 
that  had  been  granted  their  kinsmen. 

Goths  and  Romans  at  War.  —  This  encouraged  the  West 
Goths,  who  resolved  to  endure  the  ill  treatment  of  the  Ro- 
mans no  longer.  In  a  short  time  they  came  to  blows  with 
the  Roman  soldiers,  the  war  cry  was  raised,  and  fighting 
began.  The  mighty  Germans  defeated  the  Romans  and 
armed  themselves  with  the  weapons  of  the  slain.  They 
recovered  some  of  their  children,  who  told  dreadful  tales  of 
how  they  had  been  treated,  and  the  maddened  Goths  re- 


BARBARIANS   DESTROYING  THE   EMPIRE 


61 


solved  to  have  revenge.  They  went  about  killing,  plunder- 
ing, and  burning.  It  is  said  they  left  nothing  alive,  not 
even  the  beasts  of  the  field.  Brambles  and  thickets  soon 
grew  up  where 
once  had  been  fair 
fields  and  growing 
crops. 

Risking  All  on 
One  Battle.— 
Emperor  Valens 
gathered  his 
forces,  came  out 
from  his  walled 
cities,  and  risked 
everything  upon 
one  great  pitched 
battle  in  the  open. 
The  battle  took 
place  near  Adri- 
anople  (378). 
The  emperor  lost. 
His  light  horse- 
men fled  before 
the  long  lances 
and  heavy  swords 
of  the  Gothic 
horsemen,  who 
then    turned    on 

the  Roman  foot  soldiers,  broke  their  ranks,  and  put  them 
to  rout.  Two-thirds  of  the  Roman  army  were  slain,  and 
generals  and  officers  without  number.  Emperor  Valens  fled, 
wounded,  to  a  near-by  cottage.  The  Goths  set  fire  to  it  and 
burned  him  and  his  staff  of  officers  before  they  knew  that 


A  Roman  Goddess. 


62       DAWN  OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 


they  had  in  their  hands  the  Emperor  of  Rome,  upon  whom 
they  had  always  looked  with  such  awe  and  fear. 

The  Shell  is  Broken.  —  From  that  day  the  end  of 
the  Roman  empire  was  assured.  It  was  only  a  matter  of 
years.  The  Teutons  had  matched  themselves  against  the 
Romans  and  had  won  a  great  victory.  They  had  defeated 
and  slain  the  Roman  emperor  himself  —  yes,  they  had 
killed  "  the  man-god  whom  the  world  had  worshiped  for 


Alaric  in  Athens. 

centuries,  and  behold  he  died  like  other  men."  And  it 
was  all  so  easy.  What  was  there  left  now  that  the 
Germans  could  not  do? 

Alaric  Chosen  King.  —  Other  tribes  crossed  the  Danube 
on  the  ice  and  joined  the  Goths.  After  a  few  years  the 
bold  Alaric  became  their  leader,  and  the  mighty  host  swept 
down  through  Greece.  Athens  paid  a  ransom  to  be  spared. 
Here  "  Alaric  enjoyed  a  Roman  bath  and  a  public  banquet 
and  tried  to  behave  for  a  day  like  a  Roman  gentleman." 

Making  Greece  a  Desert.  —  The  Goths  sacked  the 
splendid  cities  of  Corinth  and  Sparta.     They  were  eager  for 


BARBARIANS  DESTROYING  THE  EMPIRE  63 


Victory  of  Samothrace. 


64       DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

gold  and  silver,  for  purple  and  fine  linen,  and,  especially, 
for  rich  meats  and  intoxicating  drinks.  The  splendid 
pieces  of  sculpture  and  beautiful  paintings  which  the  Ro- 
mans had  spared  to  the  Greeks,  were  now  trampled  in  the 
mud  or  broken  by  the  huge  battle-axes.  No  end  of  plunder 
was  drawn  away  in  their  oxcarts.  Vineyards,  olive  groves, 
and  orchards  were  laid  waste ;  estates  were  destroyed ; 
buildings  burned;  and  men,  women,  and  children  were 
plundered,  stripped,  and  driven  off  in  gangs  to  become  slaves 
to  the  barbarians.  The  path  of  the  Goths  became  like  a 
desert.  There  was  now  no  enemy  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
empire  that  dared  face  the  barbarians  in  the  field.  So  they 
marched  hither  and  thither,  wherever  they  liked,  leaving 
destruction  behind. 

Marching  on  Rome.  —  Alaric  was  at  last  defeated  by  the 
gigantic  Stilicho,  a  German  who  was  in  command  of  the 
armies  of  the  western  empire.  But  after  a  time  Alaric 
led  his  Gothic  tribes  from  Greece  around  the  head  of  the 
Adriatic  Sea.  The  foolish  emperor  of  the  West  had  now  be- 
come jealous  of  his  great  general,  Stilicho,  and  had  him 
murdered.  When  Alaric  heard  that  Stilicho  was  dead,  he 
marched  straight  on  Rome.  Down  through  Italy  he  passed 
without  meeting  an  enemy,  and  sat  down  before  the  walls  of 
the  capital.  The  good-for-nothing  emperor  of  Rome  was 
safe  behind  the  walls  of  Ravenna  in  northern  Italy,  and  he 
made  no  effort  to  help  his  people  at  Rome. 

Starving  Rome  to  Surrender.  —  For  eight  hundred  years 
Rome  had  not  seen  a  foreign  enemy  before  her  walls.  Her 
people  could  hardly  believe  their  eyes.  Alaric  did  not  try 
to  storm  the  proud  city,  because  he  had  no  engines  such  as 
the  Romans  used  to  batter  down  the  walls  of  cities.  Quietly 
Alaric  sat,  he  and  his  Goths,  waiting  for  the  Romans  within 
to  starve  and  die,  for  he  would  allow  no  provisions  to  be 


BARBARIANS   DESTROYING   THE   EMPIRE  65 

taken  into  the  city.     And  many  did  starve  and  die.     Men 
maddened  by  hunger  murdered  one  another  for  food. 

Romans  still  Proud.  —  Not  until  hunger  and  disease  had 
worked  dreadful  havoc  in  the  city,  did  the  Romans  send  to 
ask  terms  of  the  barbarians.  When  the  messengers  of  the 
city  came  before  Alaric,  they  began  with  lofty  pride  to  warn 
him  not  to  make  the  Romans  desperate  by  hard  or  dis- 
honorable demands.  They  told  Alaric  that  if  he  did, 
the  fury  of  the  Romans  would  be  terrible ;  besides,  they 
warned  him,  their  number  was  enormous.  Knowing  their 
weak  and  starving  condition,  Alaric  laughed  at  their  boast- 
ing, and  said,  "  The  thicker  the  grass  the  easier  it  is  to  mow." 
Then  they  asked  him  what  terms  he  would  take. 

Marie's  Hard  Terms.  —  "  Give  me  all  your  gold,  all  your 
silver,  all  your  movable  property,  and  all  your  barbarian 
slaves,  or  the  siege  goes  on,"  said  the  greedy  Alaric. 
"  What  will  you  then  leave  us?  "  inquired  the  frightened 
Romans.     "  Your  lives,"  replied  the  haughty  Goth. 

They  bought  him  off,  however,  with  a  strange  ransom; 
5000  pounds  of  gold,  30,000  pounds  of  silver,  4000  robes  of 
silk,  3000  pieces  of  scarlet  cloth,  and  3000  pounds  of  pepper. 
The  Romans  had  to  strip  the  gold  and  jewels  from  the 
statues  of  their  gods  to  raise  the  great  ransom.  The  great 
amount  of  pepper  probably  consisted  of  spices  of  all  kinds, 
which  the  Romans  used  to  season  their  foods,  and  which  the 
Germans  were  learning  to  like. 

Breaking  the  News  to  the  Emperor.  —  An  officer  rushed 
into  the  presence  of  the  worthless  emperor  at  Ravenna 
and  told  him  that  Rome  had  perished.  "  What!  "  cried  the 
emperor,  "  she  was  feeding  from  my  hand  an  hour  ago." 
He  was  greatly  relieved  when  told  that  it  was  not  his  favor- 
ite hen,  "  Roma,"  but  only  the  capital  of  his  empire  that 
had  perished. 


66       DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

An  Offer  of  Peace.  —  Alaric  got  40,000  Teuton  slaves 
out  of  the  wicked  city  and  enrolled  them  in  his  army,  which 
now  numbered  100,000  fighting  men.  He  might  have  made 
himself  king  of  Italy  but  for  his  awe  of  Rome.  He  could 
not  think  of  himself  as  fit  to  be  king  of  that  majestic  city 
which  he  had  all  his  life  almost  worshiped.  So  he  offered  to 
become  an  officer  under  the  Emperor  at  Constantinople  and 
to  rule  Italy  under  him.  But  when  the  conceited  Romans 
refused  him  this  honor,  he  cut  off  the  food  supplies  and 
marched  on  the  capital  in  earnest. 

Plundering  Rome.  —  At  midnight  one  of  the  gates  was 
opened,  probably  by  a  German  slave  within,  and  for  six 
dreadful  days  and  nights  the  rough  barbarian  warriors 
ransacked  everywhere.  Alaric  commanded  his  followers  to 
leave  the  Christian  churches  untouched,  but  the  wealth  of 
the  citizens  he  gave  them  leave  to  take.  The  barbarian 
oxcarts  went  forth  in  long  trains  piled  high  with  costly 
furniture,  golden  vessels,  and  silken  garments.  They  had 
a  table  of  solid  emerald  with  its  three  rows  of  great  pearls, 
a  great  dish,  weighing  a  ton,  covered  with  gems  of  India,  and 
other  priceless  spoils.  There  were  long  columns  of  captives, 
too. 

Alaric's  Death.  —  Alaric  marched  south  through  Italy 
with  his  rich  plunder,  but  he  soon  died.  His  devoted  Goths 
turned  the  course  of  a  river  and  buried  their  hero  in  its  bed. 
"  They  buried  him  covered  with  mail,  sitting  upright  upon 
his  horse,  with  gold  and  jewels  and  arms,  that  he  might 
make  a  worthy  showing  among  the  other  dead  heroes  in 
Odin's  hall.  And  then  they  turned  back  the  river  into  its 
bed  and  slew  the  slaves  who  had  done  the  work,  that  no  man 
might  know  where  Alaric  lies ;  and  no  man  does  know  to  this 
day." 

After  the  death  of  their  king,  the  West  Goths  turned 


BARBARIANS   DESTROYING   THE  EMPIRE 


67 


north  and  marched  into  Gaul  and  later  into  Spain,  fighting, 
as  they  went,  with  different  German  tribes  and  bearing 
with  them  the  treasures  of  Rome.  They  mingled  with  the 
Romanized  inhabitants  of  Spain  and  became  the  forefathers 
of  the  modern  Spaniards. 

Many  Tribes  Sweep  over  the  Rhine.  —  While  the  Goths 
were  marching  through  the  empire,  plundering  as  they  went, 


The  Tomb  of  Emperor  Hadrian  at  Rome. 

other  tribes,  much  more  barbarous,  swarmed  across  the 
Rhine  boundary.  Whole  nations  came,  — men,  women,  and 
children,  horses,  cattle  and  dogs,  bag  and  baggage.  Living 
on  their  flocks  and  herds  and  grinding  their  corn  in  hand- 
mills,  they  roamed  wherever  they  liked,  hunting  and  ravag- 
ing and  burning. 

The  Savage  Vandals.  —  The  most  reckless  destroyers  of 
all  were  the  Vandals.  Whenever  we  now  wish  to  speak  of 
wicked  destruction  of  property,  we  call  it  vandalism.     The 


6&      DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

Vandals  were  filled  with  wonder  at  the  sights  that  they  be- 
held in  the  fine  cities  of  Gaul.  They  did  not  understand 
the  art  and  the  beautiful  architecture  that  they  saw  on  all 
sides.  These  Vandals  had  always  lived  in  rude  huts  or 
roamed  the  forest.  What  use  had  they  for  the  magnificent 
temples,  baths,  and  mansions,  filled  with  treasures  of  art? 
So  they  plundered  and  laid  waste  whatever  they  saw. 
Priceless  statues  and  images  of  the  Roman  gods  were 
stripped  of  their  gold  and  jewels  and  then  broken  to  pieces 
with  huge  battle-axes. 

One  German  warrior  was  waiting  in  the  antechamber 
of  a  splendid  house,  when  he  was  astonished  to  see  ducks 
apparently  swimming  on  the  floor  of  the  room.  He  dashed 
his  battle-ax  at  the  beautiful  mosaic  to  see  whether  the 
ducks  were  alive.  Like  children,  these  wild  people  de- 
stroyed whatever  attracted  their  idle  curiosity. 

The  Vandals  in  Africa.  —  The  Vandals  ravaged  Gaul 
and  Spain,  crossed  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  overthrew 
Roman  authority  in  all  northern  Africa.  Here  they  set 
up  an  empire  of  their  own  with  Carthage  as  their  capital. 

The  Pirate  Vandals.  —  These  Vandals,  who  had  scarcely 
caught  sight  of  the  sea  for  generations,  now  soon  became 
bold  and  daring  pirates,  spreading  terror  along  the  entire 
Mediterranean  coast.  When  their  leader,  Gaiseric,  was 
once  setting  out  on  a  plundering  expedition,  he  was  asked 
by  his  pilot  which  way  to  steer.  "  Wherever  there  are 
people  with  whom  God  is  angry,"  replied  the  Vandal  cap- 
tain. 

Vandals  Looting  Rome.  —  On  one  occasion  they  made  a 
destructive  raid  on  the  city  of  Rome.  For  two  weeks  they 
hunted  out  valuables  and  plundered  the  city.  They  carried 
off  whatever  goods  and  precious  spoils  they  could  lay  their 
hands  on.     But,   like   the    Goths,    they   did   not  destroy 


BARBARIANS   DESTROYING  THE   EMPIRE  69 


70      DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

the  buildings.  They  took  away  with  them  hundreds  of 
Roman  citizens  to  serve  them  as  slaves.  We  can  see  how 
low  Rome  had  sunk,  when  we  are  told  that  all  this  hap- 
pened without  the  Romans  striking  a  single  blow  in  their 
own  defense. 

The  Franks.  — Another  German  tribe,  of  whom  we  shall 
later  hear  much,  were  the  Franks,  who  gave  their  name  to 
modern  France.  The  Franks  for  a  long  time  had  homes  on 
both  sides  of  the  lower  Rhine.  They  were  ruder  and  more 
barbarous  than  the  Goths,  for  they  had  not  yet  received 
the  gentle  message  of  Christianity.  A  half  century  after 
Alaric  had  ransacked  Rome,  the  Franks  began  to  add  to 
their  territory  by  spreading  themselves  out  slowly  *over 
northern  Gaul.  These  wild  warriors  wrought  havoc  wher- 
ever they  went.  Other  tribes  who  came  into  the  Roman 
empire  during  these  dark  days  were  the  Lombards,  the 
East  Goths,  the  Burgundians,  and  the  Suevi. 

Slipping  Back  into  Barbarism.  —  From  the  fifth  century 
on  for  three  hundred  years,  the  civilized  world  was  slipping 
back  into  barbarism.  The  formerly  civilized  lands  were 
plundered  time  after  time  by  fresh,  never-ending  hordes 
of  barbarians.  Each  raid  destroyed  more  of  the  little  good 
that  was  left,  and  human  society  seemed  hopelessly  wrecked. 

The  Country  Districts  Ruined.  —  The  destruction  was 
complete  in  the  rural  districts.  Villas,  pillaged  time  and 
again,  were  at  last  abandoned.  The  paths  and  walks  were 
grown  up  with  thorns  and  briers,  the  doors  were  wrenched 
from  their  hinges,  and  the  roofs  were  left  open  to  the  sky. 
Houses  and  mills  were  in  ruins. 

Fields,  once  fair  with  growing  crops,  were  now  over- 
grown with  forests  or  had  passed  back  into  marsh  or  desert. 
There  was  no  live  stock  to  be  seen  —  no  hogs,  sheep,  cows, 
or  horses.     There  was  not  even  seed   corn   left  by  the 


BARBARIANS   DESTROYING   THE   EMPIRE  71 

plunderers,  with  which  to  start  the  raising  of  crops  again. 
The  wretched  inhabitants  took  to  hunting  and  fishing, 
living  meanwhile  in  the  woods  or  caves.  In  some  places 
all   human   beings   had   entirely   disappeared,    and   sheep 


Ruins  of  the  Roman  Forum. 
Compare  with  the  cut  on  p.  69. 

might  be  seen  running  wild  and  wheat  springing  up  self- 
sown. 

The  Cities  Wrecked.  —  There  were  villages  and  towns 
almost  wholly  in  ashes,  with  no  inhabitants  but  dogs. 
City  after  city  was  taken  and  wrecked,  now  by  Goth  and 
now  by  Vandal  or  Lombard.  The  city  of  Treves  in  Gaul 
was  four  times  looted  by  different  barbarian  tribes.  "  When 
the  population  was  half  destroyed  by  fire  and  sword,  the 
poor  dying  of  famine,  corpses  of  men  and  women  lying 
about  the  streets  breeding  pestilence,  while  dogs  devoured 
them,  the  few  Roman  nobles  who  were  left  comforted  them- 
selves by  sending  to  the   figurehead  emperor   to  beg  for 


72       DAWN  OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

games."  The  wretched  people  who  had  escaped  death 
from  the  barbarians  were  soon  swept  away  in  countless 
numbers  by  the  starvation  and  disease  that  stalked  over 
the  land. 

Rome  a  Den  of  Thieves.  —  A  third  time  Rome  was 
ransacked  and  plundered,  until  nothing  was  left  but 
fever-haunted  ruins.  The  towering  walls  of  this  once 
glorious  capital  were  full  of  great  holes  and  gaps.  Broken- 
down  aqueducts  appeared  here  and  there,  and  the  people 
drank  from  the  muddy  Tiber,  because  not  one  of  her  score 
of  aqueducts  remained  whole.  Her  noble  and  beautiful 
statues,  her  majestic  palaces  and  libraries  and  temples 
—  where  were  they  ?  The  splendid  villas  along  the  Tiber 
were  gone,  the  trees  burned  or  cut  down,  the  terraces  had 
slipped  away  into  the  river,  and  the  magnificent  tombs 
along  the  Appian  Way  were  broken  and  falling  to  pieces. 
Law  and  order  were  gone,  and  Rome  had  become  a  den  of 
thieves  and  robbers.  Men  were  brawling  in  the  streets, 
ill  clad  and  savage,  armed  with  sword  and  knife  and  club. 
Children  were  running  the  streets  wild  and  untaught,  and 
were  growing  up  to  be  fierce  and  ignorant  like  their  fathers. 

Commerce  and  Travel  cut  Off.  —  The  roads  fell  out  of 
repair,  and  the  bridges  were  torn  down.  Travel  and  com- 
merce were  almost  entirely  stopped  except  along  the  Medi- 
terranean coasts,  where  a  few  ships  dared  to  ply  in  spite  of 
the  swarms  of  pirates.  Communication,  not  only  between 
inland  cities  and  countries,  but  even  between  neighboring 
towns,  was  broken  off.  Highway  robbers  were  in  hiding 
everywhere.  Unable  to  get  provisions  from  abroad,  the 
people  were  left  to  feed  and  clothe  themselves  by  their 
own  toil. 

Knowledge  and  Skill  Disappear.  —  Much  of  skill  in 
making  things  was  forgotten  because  the  people,  who  were 


BARBARIANS   DESTROYING   THE   EMPIRE 


73 


74       DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

slipping  back  into  barbarism,  no  longer  cared  for  the  con- 
veniences and  luxuries  that  civilized  people  need.  There 
was  no  longer  any  skill  in  art,  building,  or  decorating,  nor 
even  a  love  for  beautiful  things. 

In  the  palmy  days  of  Rome,  industry  had  been  purely 
domestic ;  that  is,  all  manufactured  articles  that  were  not 
brought  from  abroad  were  made  in  the  homes.  There 
were  no  factories.  In  the  mansions  of  nobles,  and  even  in 
the  palaces  of  kings  and  emperors,  women  and  serf  work- 
men were  employed  to  manufacture  the  coarse  stuffs  with 
which  they  clothed  themselves  and  their  households. 
These  mansions  had  been  many  times  looted  by  the  bar- 
barians, and  the  workmen  had  been  driven  to  the  four 
winds.  Thus  skill  in  all  these  handicrafts  was  lost,  and  all 
manufactured  articles  became  rude  and  barbarous  like  the 
people. 

Schools  and  Learning  Vanish .  —  No  one  was  now  inter- 
ested in  learning.  In  the  wild  days  of  the  Frankish,  the 
Gothic,  and  the  Lombard  kings,  men  had  neither  time  nor 
desire  for  serious  thought  and  study,  much  less  for  writing 
books.  What  writing  they  did  was  for  the  immediate  calls 
of  the  day.  The  ability  to  speak  and  write  the  Greek  lan- 
guage was  entirely  forgotten. 

Even  the  knowledge  of  Latin  literature  sank  into  a 
darkness  that  was  to  last  for  many  hundred  years,  and 
spoken  Latin  was  everywhere  lost  save  among  the  monks 
and  priests,  who  used  it  in  the  services  of  the  church.  All 
schools  disappeared  except  those  of  the  monastery.  Men's 
minds  were  absorbed  by  the  calamities  about  them.  All 
power  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  rude  and  ignorant  barbarian 
chieftains.  Their  no  less  ignorant  warriors  became  the 
great  landowners  and  the  ruling  class.  The  centuries  that 
followed  were  so  full  of  ignorance,  suffering,  and  blood- 


BARBARIANS   DESTROYING  THE   EMPIRE  75 

shed  that  they  were  called  the  Dark  Ages.     But  dark  as 
the  times  were,  they  were  the  forerunner  of  better  days. 

QUESTIONS 

The  West  Goths  —  1.  Who  were  the  West  Goths?  2.  What 
promises  did  they  make?  3.  How  did  the  Romans  treat  them? 
4.  What  caused  war  between  the.  Goths  and  the  Romans  ?  5.  De- 
scribe Alaric's  advance.  6.  What  were  its  results?  7.  Describe 
the  march  to  Rome.  8.  Describe  the  fall  of  Rome.  9.  Where  did 
the  Goths  go  next  ? 

The  Vandals  —  10.  Who  were  the  Vandals?  n.  Where  did 
they  make  invasions?  12.  Results?  13.  Compare  the  Vandals 
with  the  Goths.  14.  What  other  barbarians  were  invading  at  this 
time? 

The  Franks  —  15.  Who  were  the  Franks?  16.  Where  did  they 
live?  17.  How  did  they  compare  with  the  other  Teutons? 
18.  Why  did  they  invade  Rome?  19.  Where  did  they  settle? 
20.  What  was  happening  in  Britain  ?  21.  What  were  the  results  of 
these  barbarian  invasions?  22.  Show  the  effect  of  these  invasions 
upon  commerce,  schools  and  learning,  and  upon  the  language. 
23.  What  period  was  called  the  Dark  Ages  ?  24.  Sum  up  what  you 
think  were  the  causes  of  the  Dark  Ages. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE   TEUTONS   AT   SCHOOL   IN   THE   EMPIRE 

What  was  Spared.  —  The  wandering  German  conquerors 
did  not  by  any  means  stamp  out  Roman  civilization  every- 
where. It  is  true  that  most  districts  of  the  empire  were 
turned  back  into  deserts  and  swamps,  and  hundreds  of 
magnificent  cities  were  wiped  off  the  earth.  But  there 
were  corners  and  out-of-the-way  districts  that  escaped  the 
plunderers  almost  entirely.  A  few  widely  scattered  cities 
were  also  spared.  And  since  the  Germans,  because  of 
their  wild,  roving  nature,  refused  to  live  in  cities,  the  few 
towns  that  escaped  were  left  to  themselves.  In  these 
towns  the  people  kept  up  much  of  the  Roman  manners, 
customs,  language,  and  laws.  These  few  centers  of  Roman 
life  later  taught  the  rough  Germans  many  civilized  habits 
and  arts,  as  well  as  the  Romans'  mode  of  governing  cities. 
The  churches  and  monasteries,  being  largely  spared,  also 
served  to  shelter  many  good  things,  until  the  barbarians 
were  ready  to  accept  them. 

What  the  Teutons  Added.  —  The  Germans,  who  were  to 
begin  where  the  Romans  left  off  and  carry  on  the  world's 
work,  brought  new  blood  into  the  dying  empire.  Like  a 
youthful  nation,  they  refreshed  the  Latins  with  new  hopes 
and  ideas.  They  had  a  higher  respect  for  woman;  they 
refused  to  obey  laws  unless  they  had  a  voice  in  making 
them,  for  they  believed  that  one  freeman  was  as  good  as 
another,  not  excepting  even  the  king.  The  Germans  had 
the  muscles  and  brains  and  pluck  to  do  great  things.     All 

76 


TEUTONS  AT  SCHOOL  IN  THE  EMPIRE  77 

they  needed  were  good  teachers  and  time  to  learn.  So  they 
gave  a  healthier  tone  to  society.  Though  Roman  life  had 
declined  to  a  very  low  mark,  the  Germans  helped  to  start 
it  anew. 

Ten  Latins  to  One  Teuton.  —  The  barbarians  were 
spread  out  unevenly  over  the  empire,  thinly  in  some  places 
and  thickly  in  others,  while  the  great  mass  of  the  people 
under  their  control  remained  Latin  as  it  had  been  before. 
In  most  parts  of  the  empire  there  was  not  more  than  one 
German  to  every  ten  or  even  fifteen  Latins,  but  the  superior 
courage  and  righting  power  of  the  Teutons  enabled  them  to 
keep  the  upper  hand. 

Seizing  Upon  Roman  Lands.  —  Some  barbarians,  like 
the  East  Goths  and  Lombards  in  Italy,  took  but  one- third 
of  the  land,  leaving  the  rest  to  the  Latins;  but  the  West 
Goths  and  Burgundians  in  Spain  and  Gaul  took  two-thirds. 
Other  tribes  had  no  fixed  rule,  but  simply  drove  out  the 
larger  Latin  landholders  and  took  their  estates.  After 
years  of  war  and  strife,  the  two  peoples  settled  down  peace- 
fully, side  by  side. 

The  Christian  Church  Well  Established.  —  The  Christian 
religion  was  thoroughly  rooted  in  the  empire  long  before  the 
Teutons  came.  The  Romans,  both  the  rich  and  the  poor, 
the  high  and  the  low,  had  come  to  respect  and  trust  the 
church  with  its  unselfish  and  noble-minded  clergy.  The 
Christian  bishops  and  priests  had  already  gained  much 
power  in  moral  and  social  life.  So  much  power  had  they, 
that  they  had  put  a  stop  to  the  great  gladiatorial  games, 
which  had  been  so  dear  to  the  hearts  of  all  the  Romans. 
The  church  had  also  done  awa'y  with  suicide  and  with  the 
worst  cruelties  of  slavery  in  the  empire. 

The  Emperor  Becomes  Weak.  —  As  the  empire  declined 
and  became  at  last  too  weak  to  preserve  order  in  these  wild 


78       DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

times,  the  burden  of  controlling  evil  men,  and  of  stopping, 
so  far  as  they  might,  the  endless  robbing,  quarreling,  and 
bloodshed,  fell  more  and  more  upon  the  priests.  In  this 
way,  much  of  the  power  that  formerly  rested  in  the  hands 
of  the  emperor  and  his  government  now  fell  to  the  Christian 
bishops  and  priests ;  for,  amid  the  vast  ruins  of  that  great 
empire,  the  church  alone  stood  erect  and  strong.  Churches 
were  sometimes  broken  into  and  plundered,  and  their 
ministers  put  to  the  sword.  Still  the  Christian  leaders 
with  noble  courage  faced  the  wild  barbarians,  holding  out 
the  "  light  of  heaven,"  while  the  air  was  filled  with  storm 
and  darkness,  and  the  land  with  cruelty  and  bloodshed. 

Standing  in  the  Emperor's  Place.  —  Another  thing  that 
made  the  church  strong,  in  these  wild  days,  was  the  kind 
of  men  who  were  chosen  for  its  leaders  —  noble,unselfish, 
godly  men,  who  were  giving  their  lives  in  kindly  service 
to  others.  The  barbarians,  who  were  everywhere  robbing 
and  seizing  upon  goods  and  lands,  saw  all  about  them  the 
churchmen,  taking  none  of  the  rich  plunder.  They  saw 
that  the  priests  did  not  live  for  the  things  of  this  world,  and 
they  could  not  help  admiring  and  giving  ear  to  them. 
Another  thing  that  added  to  the  influence  of  the  clergy  was 
the  fact  that  they  were  permanent  in  office.  Some  of  the 
most  remarkable  bishops  held  their  power  for  very  long 
periods  of  time,  for  fifty  or  even  sixty  years,  while  rapid 
changes  were  going  on  all  about  them.  And  so  when  the 
bishops  spoke,  the  people  gave  heed. 

Something  Stronger  Than  the  Battle- Ax.  —  The  rough 
characters  of  those  savage  times  had  very  little  respect  for 
anything  save  the  keen  sword  or  the  huge  battle-ax.  When 
rude  barbarian  chiefs,  like  Clovis,  saw  something  stronger 
than  force  and  greater  than  kings,  they  were  bewildered 
and  awed  into  respect.     The  church  was  a  different  power 


TEUTONS  AT   SCHOOL   IN   THE   EMPIRE  79 

from  any  that  they  had  ever  met  —  a  power  that  had  no 
battle-axes  and  yet  was  not  afraid  of  theirs. 

Bishops  Awe  the  Barbarians.  —  The  wild  Germans 
looked  upon  the  bishop  as  a  pure,  peaceable,  just,  and  brave 
man.  He  had  boundless  learning,  besides  a  room  full  of 
books  and  a  map  of  the  whole  world.  He  could  read, 
write,  and  cipher,  talk  Latin  and,  perhaps,  Greek.  They 
gazed  at  his  wonderful  dress  and  listened  to  his  strange 
chants.  What  magical  or  supernatural  power  might  he 
not  have? 

Things  New  and  Strange.  —  They  entered  the  churches, 
trembling,  and  stared  at  the  arts  new  to  them,  while  they 
were  kindly  taught  and  fed  by  the  bishops  and  priests.  They 
gazed  in  wonder  at  the  frescoes  and  carvings.  The  bishop 
preached  to  the  king  and  his  men,  bold,  brave  sermons  in 
the  presence  of  the  stone  coffin  of  the  saint,  for  every 
church  held  the  remains  of  some  holy  life.  He  told  them 
to  consider  in  whose  presence  they  were  and  to  cast  out  the 
seven  deadly  sins.  He  said,  "  This  saint,  asleep  but  ever 
awake,  cannot  abide  those  who  rob  the  orphan  and  the 
widow ;  he  will  watch  them  like  an  eagle  in  the  sky  and  track 
them  like  a  wolf  of  the  wood  till  he  punishes  them  with  a 
great  destruction." 

The  Bishop's  Sermon  Strikes  Home.  —  The  courage  of 
the  bishop,  who  feared  not  to  speak  bravely  and  plainly 
even  to  these  savage  warriors,  made  the  strong  men  blush 
and  tremble. 

"  Though  the  coat  of  mail  never  leaves  my  breast," 
said  the  king  of  the  Goths,  "  and  though  my  hand  is  ever 
at  the  brazen  hilt  of  my  sword  and  the  iron  guards  my  side, 
I  have  found  a  man  who,  for  all  my  armor,  can  vanquish  me 
with  his  words,  which  pierce  like  an  arrow  to  my  very 
heart." 


8o       DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 


Barbarians  Accept  the  Church.  —  So  the  wild  king  and 
his  wild  warriors  hesitated.  They  could  face  flesh  and 
blood ;  but  who  could  face  the  terrible  tortures  of  an  angry 
God?  Being  men  of  wicked  lives,  their  consciences  made 
them    cowards.     "  There    must    surely    be,"    they    said, 


St.  Peter's,  Rome. 

"  some  other  power  greater  than  the  battle-ax."  Every- 
where they  went  the  barbarian  chiefs  met  with  these  same 
fearless  bishops.  They  knew  that  they  must  either  accept 
and  make  terms  with  the  church,  or  root  it  out  and  destroy 
it.  They  accepted  the  church,  for  the  most  part,  in  all 
countries  of  the  empire,  save  in  Britain. 

Bishops  as  Rulers.  —  In  times  of  war  the  bishops  be- 
came the  messengers  and  peacemakers.  They  were  the 
only  trusted  guides.  They  settled  disputes  about  land 
boundaries  without  fighting;  they  protected  the  weak 
against  the  strong,   the  slave  against   his  cruel   master; 


TEUTONS   AT   SCHOOL   IN   THE   EMPIRE  81 

they  taught  the  people  to  live  pure  lives.  Being  the  only 
authority  left  during  hundreds  of  years  of  darkness  and 
strife,  the  church  was  the  best  teacher  that  the  rough  bar- 
barians had ;  and  it  helped  to  lift  them  up  slowly  toward 
the  level  of  civilized  living. 

Germans  Need  the  Latin  Language.  —  The  German  set- 
tlers —  Goths,  Franks,  and  Lombards  —  found  them- 
selves in  the  business  of  life  in  daily  contact  with  a 
Latin-speaking  population  many  times  more  numerous 
than  themselves.  The  Romans,  whom  we  shall  hereafter 
call  Latins,  were  also  more  cultivated  and  lived  upon  a 
higher  plane  than  their  German  overlords.  If  the  bar- 
barians were  to  rule  over  these  people,  they  must  under- 
stand something  of  Latin.  This  was  not  the  literary 
Latin  in  which  Caesar  wrote  his  matchless  history,  and  in 
which  Cicero  uttered  his  famous  orations,  but  the  Latin  of 
the  street,  the  Latin  of  the  soldiers,  farmers,  workmen,  and 
slaves,  with  its  vulgar  slang  and  outlandish  pronunciations. 
The  new  masters  could  not  talk  with  the  woodsmen,  the 
carpenters,  and  masons  on  their  great  estates,  without 
acquaintance  with  their  language. 

Where  Latin  Aids  the  Germans.  —  Whenever  these  rude 
German  lords  had  need  of  the  services  of  the  church  to 
baptize  their  children,  or  to  bury  the  dead,  they  found  that 
here,  also,  the  only  language  in  use  was  Latin.  In  the  court 
or  lawyer's  office,  the  same  was  true.  They  soon  found 
that  their  German  dialect  was  too  barbarous  for  use  even 
in  business  and  government.  Latin  would  not  only  be  a 
great  aid  to  them  in  gaining  power  and  influence,  but  they 
must  learn  it  or  be  always  looked  upon  as  foreigners. 

Two  Languages  Side  by  Side.  —  For  centuries  the  two 
languages  were  spoken  side  by  side,  varying  in  different 
districts,  and  among  different  classes  of  people,  each  bor- 


82        DAWN  OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

rowing  words  from  the  other.  The  Germans  found  that 
they  had  no  words,  whatever,  for  many  things  that  they 
met  with  in  this  higher  life  about  them,  so  they  freely  bor- 
rowed Latin  names  and  expressions. 

Latin  Triumphs.  —  The  contest  between  the  two  lan- 
guages went  on  silently  and  unnoticed,  but  the  Latin 
gradually  took  the  lead,  as  being  the  best  suited  to  the 
public  needs.  German  continued  for  a  long  time  the  lan- 
guage of  the  home  and  fireside,  but  at  length  Franks  and 
Goths  married  Latin  wives,  and  in  this  way  Latin  came 
more  and  more  into  the  homes.  A  few  centuries  blotted 
out  almost  every  trace  of  the  German  dialects  in  Italy, 
France,  and  Spain.     This  was  especially  true  in  the  cities. 

Rude  Dialects  Instead  of  Latin.  —  For  many,  many 
years,  in  fact  for  centuries,  there  was  almost  no  travel  or 
commerce.  Each  community  lived  very  much  to  itself. 
Each  province  or  country  became  peculiar  in  dress,  in 
customs,  and  even  in  language.  The  people  in  different 
countries  of  the  empire  very  gradually  came  to  pronounce 
the  same  words  differently,  and  when  they  again  learned  to 
read  and  write,  they  spelled  the  same  words  differently. 
Let  us  take  the  Latin  word  schola,  meaning  school,  and  see 
how  it  came  to  be  spelled  in  different  parts  of  the  empire. 
In  Italy,  schola  came  to  be  spelled  scuola;  in  Spain,  escuela; 
in  Portugal,  escola;  and  in  France,  ecole.  From  the  differ- 
ent ways  these  words  were  pronounced  you  would  hardly 
dream  that  they  all  came  from  the  Latin  mother  word. 

Moreover,  new  words  were  coined  and  brought  into  use, 
at  first  perhaps  as  slang,  just  as  we  are  making  new  words 
and  expressions  to-day ;  but  the  slang  of  each  province  was, 
of  course,  utterly  different  from  that  of  the  others.  Thus 
many  dialects  grew  up,  very  unlike  the  mother  Latin  and 
unlike  one  another.     These  dialects,  as  the  centuries  passed, 


TEUTONS   AT   SCHOOL  IN  THE   EMPIRE  83 

all  ran  apart  like  spokes  from  the  hub  of  a  wheel.  Differ- 
ent provinces  could  no  longer  understand  one  another's 
language.  In  Spain  the  people  came  to  speak  Spanish 
dialects ;  in  France,  French ;  in  Italy,  Italian.  So  the  lan- 
guages of  these  countries  to-day  are  modified  forms  of  Latin. 
For  this  reason  the  Spanish,  French,  Italian,  and  Portuguese 
languages  are  called  Romance  tongues. 

A  Barbarian  Lawsuit.  —  The  Germans  came  into  the 
empire,  not  only  as  armies,  but  as  tribes ;  and,  as  they 
settled,  the  tribes  or  nations  broke  up  into  clans,  which 
were  large  groups  of  kinsmen.  Outside  the  clan,  or  family 
group,  there  was  no  law  to  appeal  to.  If  men  got  into  a 
dispute,  one  way  to  settle  it  was  by  wager  of  battle ;  that 
is,  to  fight  it  out  fairly,  either  in  single  combat  or  with 
champions  who  fought  for  them.  They  believed  that  God 
would  give  victory  to  the  right  side. 

A  Blood  Feud.  —  Another  way  to  settle  the  trouble  was 
to  ask  the  clan  or  family  to  take  it  up.  Then  a  blood  feud 
arose  between  two  families,  whose  followers  carried  on  a 
sort  of  warfare  for  years,  during  which  time,  in  many  in- 
stances, many  were  killed  on  both  sides. 

Fines.  —  Still  another  way  to  settle  difficulties  was  by 
fining  the  wrongdoer.  Fines  were  called  weregelds,  and 
there  were  weregelds  for  every  kind  of  misdeed.  Among 
the  Lombards,  whose  laws  were  at  last  written  in  Latin,  a 
man  who  murdered  another  was  fined  900  pieces  of  gold. 
For  blinding  another's  eye,  one  was  fined  as  much  as  if 
he  had  killed  his  enemy.  Each  limb  had  its  price.  A 
front  tooth  was  worth  sixteen  coins,  because  it  disfigured 
the  face,  while  a  back  tooth  was  worth  but  eight.  A  slave's 
tooth  was  worth  but  four  coins,  for  the  barbarian  laws 
were  different  for  different  classes  of  people.  A  noble  or 
freeman  was  let  off  easily  for  a  crime  that  would  be  severely 


84       DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

punished  if  committed  by  a  poor  man  or  a  slave.  So  a 
man  was  always  fined  less  for  injury  to  a  serf  or  a  slave  than 
to  a  freeman. 

Breaking  a  Man's  Head.  —  To  call  a  man  "  a  lazy  loon  " 
was  a  serious  offense  among  the  Lombards,  and  for  this 
crime  one  must  either  apologize  and  pay  a  fine  of  twelve 
coins,  or,  if  he  still  said  it  was  true,  he  must  fight  the  duel. 
To  break  a  man's  skull  cost  twelve  coins,  and  twelve  more 
for  each  fracture  up  to  three,  after  which  they  were  not 
counted.  But  before  the  full  fine  was  paid,  a  piece  of  bone 
must  come  out  which  would  make  a  sound  when  thrown 
into  a  shield  twelve  feet  away.  The  fine,  or  weregeld, 
for  taking  a  woman's  life  was  1200  coins,  while  that  for  man 
was  only  900,  because  he  could  defend  himself  while  she 
could  not. 

Personal  Liberty.  —  The  Germans  had  so  high  an  opinion 
of  life  and  liberty  that  they  never  imprisoned  a  man,  and 
very  rarely  imposed  the  penalty  of  death,  no  matter  what 
the  crime  was.     A  man's  person  was  sacred  among  them. 

Laws  Made  for  a  Certain  Territory.  —  When  we  Ameri- 
cans go  from  one  state  or  country  to  another,  we  come 
every  time  under  a  new  system  of  laws,  for  all  laws  to-day 
are  made  for  a  certain  territory  and  limited  to  it.  So  we 
say  our  laws  are  territorial. 

Personal  Laws.  —  But  the  Teutons,  who  roamed  about 
so  much,  could  not  well  have  territorial  laws.  They  made 
their  laws  once  for  a  lifetime;  and  no  matter  where  they 
went,  each  man  carried  his  own  laws  with  him  and  expected 
to  have  them  respected.  A  man's  laws  were  always  those 
of  the  tribe  into  which  he  was  born.  So  the  German  thought 
that  his  laws  were  personal ;  that  is,  a  part  of  himself,  and 
he  could  not  change  them  or  part  with  them  if  he  wanted  to 
do  so. 


TEUTONS  AT   SCHOOL  IN   THE   EMPIRE  85 

Two  Law  Codes  Side  by  Side.  —  While  he  always  claimed 
the  right  to  be  judged  by  his  own  laws,  the  Teuton  gave  to 
other  people  the  same  right.  The  Germans,  when  they 
entered  the  empire,  settled  down  under  their  own  unwritten 
laws,  which  they  had  brought  from  beyond  the  Rhine; 
but  they  allowed  the  Latins  to  continue  under  Roman  laws. 
For  a  long,  long  time  there  existed  side  by  side  two  sets, 
or  codes  of  law,  one  for  Teutons  and  another  for  Latins. 

Owning  Land,  New  to  Germans.  —  No  sooner  had  they 
settled  than  each  freeman  began  to  own  some  land,  which 
they  had  never  thought  of  doing  in  the  wild  woods  of  Ger- 
many. They  soon  wished  to  build  and  to  plant,  to  buy  and 
sell,  and  to  make  wills  so  that  their  children  might  inherit 
their  lands.  They  began  also  to  have  conflicts  about  land 
boundaries  and  about  live  stock  belonging  to  one  man  stray- 
ing on  the  lands  of  another.  Likewise  in  their  business  deal- 
ings they  began  to  have  disputes.  Their  own  rude  laws 
would  not  cover  any  of  these  cases.  No  such  disputes 
had  ever  arisen  in  the  forests  of  Germany,  because  there 
the  people  had  not  owned  land.     What  should  they  do? 

Roman  Law  Triumphs.  —  They  soon  learned  that  the 
Roman  laws,  which  had  come  down  from  centuries  before, 
and  which  were  written  in  great  books,  covered  all  these 
cases,  with  a  fairness  and  justice  that  astonished  the  Ger- 
mans. They  found  also  a  class  of  learned  men,  or 
lawyers,  whose  business  it  was  to  explain  these  laws  and 
apply  them  in  the  courts.  They  came  to  see  how  much 
better  were  the  laws  of  Rome  for  all  their  new  needs,  and 
so  they  allowed  their  old  Teutonic  laws  to  die  out  gradu- 
ally and  disappear. 

Roman  Law  an  Aid  to  the  Barbarians. —  In  this  manner 
the  great  and  wonderful  system  of  law,  which  was  Rome's 
best  gift  to  mankind,  lived  on  and  became  the  foundation 


86       DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

for  the  laws  of  many  nations  to-day.  These  noble  laws 
spread  abroad  justice  and  fair  dealing.  They  became  a 
mighty  aid  to  the  Germans  in  their  onward  and  upward 
struggle.  The  best  teachers  for  our  rude  forefathers  were, 
however,  the  monasteries,  and  of  them  we  shall  read  in  the 
next  chapter. 

QUESTIONS 

i.  What  parts  of  the  Roman  empire  were  spared?  2.  Why? 
3.  Of  what  value  were  the  things  that  were  spared?  4.  What  valu- 
able things  did  the  Teutons  bring  into  the  empire?  5.  How  was 
the  language  changed?  6.  How  did  the  Teutons  and  Latins  com- 
pare in  numbers  ?  7.  Why  had  the  Teutons  such  power  ?  8.  Who 
was  seizing  the  lands  ?  9.  What  great  work  was  Christianity  doing 
for  the  empire  ?  10.  What  was  its  effect  upon  the  barbarians  ? 
11.  Discuss  the  punishments  of  this  time.  12.  What  do  they  show? 
13.  Discuss  the  laws.  14.  Who  made  them?  15.  Show  how  the 
Dark  Ages  were  a  good  thing  ?  16.  How  had  the  church  gained  so 
much  power  as  it  had  ? 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE   MONASTERIES 

The  Monks  as  Teachers.  —  Through  all  the  centuries 
of  the  Dark  Ages,  when  the  crude  and  barbarous  Germans 
were  waging  bloody  wars  upon  the  Romans  and  upon  one 
another,  everything  seemed  hopelessly  ruined.  The  teach- 
ers who  saved  most  of  the  Roman  skill  and  knowledge 
from  utter  destruction  until  the  Germans  were  ready  to  take 
them  up  were  the  monks. 

Early  Monks  Godly  Men.  —  The  monks  wanted  none  of 
the  riches  of  this  world.  While  other  men  in  those  dark 
days  were  killing  and  robbing  their  neighbors,  the  monks 
sought  quiet,  peaceful  places  away  from  the  wrangling  and 
the  wickedness,  where  they  might  live  lives  of  service  to 
God.  They  were  merciful  and  kind,  pure  and  temperate; 
and  they  wanted  places  in  which  to  think,  to  work,  and  to 
pray.  Thus  there  arose,  shortly  after  the  Germans  took 
possession  of  the  empire,  great  monasteries,  whose  high 
walls  shut  out  the  wicked  world. 

Nunneries.  —  These  monasteries  sprang  up  rapidly 
everywhere  in  Western  Europe.  Such  a  life  appealed  to 
women,  too,  and  so  there  appeared  a  great  many  nunneries 
in  Italy  and  in  Gaul.  Both  monasteries  and  nunneries  be- 
came filled  with  those  who  wished  to  lead  a  more  perfect 
life  than  was  possible  in  the  world  with  all  its  distractions. 
Many  others  adopted  this  way  of  living  as  a  penance. 

St.  Benedict  and  His  Rules.  —  It  was  St.  Benedict  who 
founded  the  order  of  monks  that  became  the  model  for 

87 


88       DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

all  others.     St.   Benedict   succeeded  well  because   of  his 
strict  rules.     The  monks  who  joined  his  order  made  three 

great  vows;  always  to  re- 
main poor,  to  live  chaste  and 
pure  lives,  and  promptly 
and  strictly  to  obey  their 
superiors. 

The  Monk's  Vow  to  Re- 
main Poor.  —  By  the  vow 
of  poverty  the  monk  denied 
himself  all  property  of  his 
own.  The  very  pen  with 
which  he  copied  his  pious 
books  and  the  clothing  that 
he  wore  belonged  not  to 
him,  but  to  the  monastery. 
No  matter  how  hard  he 
worked  or  what  property  came  because  of  his  efforts,  it  all 
went  to  his  order. 

Not  Allowed  to  Marry.  —  The  vow  of  chastity  bound  the 
monk  never  to  marry,  and  thus  he  was  cut  off  forever  from 
all  the  ties  of  home  and  children.  In  this  way  all  his 
labors,  his  ambitions,  were  for  his  order. 

Obeying  Their  Abbots.  —  The  vow  of  obedience  to  the 
abbot,  the  head  of  the  monastery,  was  intended  also  to 
make  the  monk  forget  self.  He  no  longer  had  even  a  will  of 
his  own,  but  he  must  look  always  to  his  superior,  the  abbot. 
How  the  Monks  Worked.  —  St.  Benedict  made  another 
rule,  that  the  life  of  the  monk  should  be  spent  in  work,  for 
he  said,  "  To  work  is  to  pray."  "  A  laboring  monk  is 
troubled  by  one  devil ;  an  idle  monk  by  a  host  of  devils," 
said  another.  Every  day  so  much  time  was  spent  in  prayer, 
and  so  much  in  work  with  the  hands.     One  order  divided 


THE   MONASTERIES 


89 


the  day  in  this  way :  seven  hours  of  manual  labor,  seven 
hours  of  sleep,  seven  hours  of  prayer ;  two  for  study  and 
one  for  the  single  daily  meal,  which  consisted  of  two  vege- 
tables and  some  fruit.  They  were  to  fast,  too,  but  not  more 
than  they  could  bear.      The  monks  wore  only  the  plainest 


* 

[  f 

• 

1 

P 

pP 

m 

Cloister  of  a  Monastery. 

clothing;  a  shirt  of  undyed  wool,  which  was  covered, 
at  work,  with  a  long  scapulary,  and  at  church  with 
a  cowl. 

Gifts  of  Land.  —  Many  noble  and  saintly  men  who  wished 
to  help  the  cause  of  Christ  were  glad  to  aid  the  monasteries 
by  gifts  of  land.  They  often  left  their  property  to  the 
abbey  which  they  loved.  Some  wealthy  princes  who  had 
lived  wicked  lives  were  eager  to  save  themselves  from  pun- 
ishment in  the  next  world.  The  easiest  way,  they  thought, 
was  by  a  gift  of  land  to  a  monastery ;  especially  since  a  dense 
forest,  a  barren  tract,  or  a  swamp  would  gain  the  good  will 
and  prayers  of  the  monks. 


90       DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 


Where  Abbeys  were  Built.  —  A  swamp  was  considered 
a  very  good  place  to  build  a  monastery,  for  it  compelled 
the  monks  to  work  the  harder  to  reclaim  it  and  make  it 

tillable.  The  harder, 
more  painful,  and  un- 
attractive the  work, 
the  better  suited  it 
was  thought  to  be  for 
monks.  Great  monas- 
teries sprang  up  amid 
swamps  and  in  the  un- 
broken forests,  upon 
land  given  by  some 
pious  prince  or  wealthy 
landowner.  Here  a  site 
having  been  chosen  for 
the  monastery,  the 
monks  set  about  to 
clear  the  forests  or  to 
drain  the  swamp.  As 
the  years  passed,  more 
and  more  land  was 
thus  prepared  for  wav- 
ing crops. 

The  Christian  Colony.  —  Each  Benedictine  monastery 
was  a  little  world  in  itself,  surrounded  and  shut  off  from  the 
outer  world  by  palisades  and  moats  and  turreted  walls. 
Many  were  the  buildings  about  a  cloister,  sometimes  forty 
or  fifty.  There  was  the  abbot's  stately  house  with  its 
kitchen  and  storerooms;  there  were  the  schools  for  out- 
siders, inns  for  the  convenience  of  travelers,  infirmaries  for 
the  aged  and  the  poor  who  came  for  alms,  and  the  dis- 
pensaries, where  medicines  were  given  free  to  those  who 


Plan  of  an  Abbey. 


THE   MONASTERIES 


91 


needed  them.  There  were  also  the  dom  church,  the  library, 
and  the  workshops.  The  workmen  had  their  own  abodes, 
hidden  by  hedges  and  walls. 

A  Sort  of  Hospital.  —  A  building  was  set  apart  for  the 
letting  of  blood,  which  played  so  large  a  part  in  the  practice 
of  medicine  in  those  days.  At  this  time  much  of  the  med- 
ical and  surgical  practice  was  in  the  hands  of  the  religious 
orders,  particularly  of  the  Benedictines. 

Different  Kinds  of  Work  of  an  Abbey.  —  The  monks  in 
an  abbey  numbered  several  score,  often  even  several  hun- 
dred. Every  man  was  expected  to  spend  his  life  in  doing 
good.  Whatever  talent  he  had  he  used  for  the  good  of  his 
order  and  of  his  fellow-men.  In  their  church  they  met  to 
ask  for  strength  from  on  high  to  do  their  work  as  Chris- 
tianizers  and  civilizers  of  mankind.  Then  they  went  forth 
to  work  at  farming,  gardening,  carpentering,  writing,  doctor- 
ing, teaching  in  the  schools,  or  preaching  to  the  heathen 
around  them. 

Good  Examples  to  the  District.  —  The  people  came  from 
far  and  near  to  gape  at  the  busy  workers  and  to  carry  home 
the  new  ideas.  So,  wherever  an  abbey  appeared,  the  sur- 
rounding country  quickly  learned  its  lessons  and  began  to 
improve. 

The  Germans  Reached  Through  Farming.  —  It  was 
through  agriculture  that  the  new  and  crude  Germans  could 
best  be  lifted  to  a  higher  plane  of  living,  because  the  Ger- 
mans lived  at  first  only  on  farms.  So  the  monks  became 
good  teachers,  by  example,  of  how  to  raise  the  best  crops, 
how  to  drain  swamps,  build  dikes,  and  how  to  breed  better 
cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs.  If  illness  broke  out  in  the  com- 
munity, the  monks  hastened  with  their  remedies ;  for  they 
were  great  healers,  and  distributed  their  medicines  free  to 
all  who  sought  them. 


92 


DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 


Monastic  Schools.  —  The  schools  connected  with  the 
monastery  were  of  two  kinds :  one  for  those  who  would 
later  join  the  order,  and  the  other  for  the  sons  of  the  neigh- 
boring nobles  and  freemen.  Reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic were  the  chief  subjects  taught.  Pupils  were  shown 
how  to  imitate  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  by  crossing  and 
curving  their  fingers. 

Saving  the  Ancient  Learning.  —  One  of  the  chief  labors  of 
the  monks,  and  the  one  for  which  we  should  thank  thenl 
most,  was  the  copying  of  old  manuscripts.  In  this  way, 
alone,  have  we  come  into  possession  of  the  knowledge  and 
learning  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  For  the  books  of 
those  early  times,  as  we  know,  were  written  either  upon 
papyrus  or  upon  parchment,  which  is  sheepskin.  These 
parchment  rolls  decayed  and  fell  to  pieces ;  and  if  they  had 
not  been  copied,  all  the  treasures  of  Greek  and  Roman 

learning  would  have 
been  lost.  In  every 
monastery  there  was 
a  library  and  a  writ- 
ing table. 

Toilsome  Labor.  — 
Many  a  manuscript 
copied  in  the  tenth 
century  is  still  clear 
and  legible.  The 
greatest  care  was 
taken  in  the  writing 
of  the  words  and  es- 
pecially in  starting 
the  page  with  a  beautiful  initial  letter.  Some  copyists 
found  their  work  so  tiresome  that  they  sometimes  wrote 
on  the  margins  that  they  were  glad  that  darkness  had  at 


A  Monk  at  Work. 


THE   MONASTERIES  93 

last  fallen,  or  that  the  work  was  ended.  Still  it  was  a  joy 
to  many  a  monk  to  see  the  library  of  his  monastery  grow. 
Some  manuscripts  were  bound  in  leather  and  beautifully 
adorned. 

People  Loved  the  Monks. — The  saintliness  of  the  true 
monk  gave  him  a  sacred  character  in  the  eyes  of  the  common 
people.  They  looked  up  to  him  as  missionaries  are  looked 
up  to  to-day,  when  they  do  their  work  well.  When  a  noble 
abbot  or  a  monk  of  exceptional  goodness  died,  he  was 
mourned  by  thousands  who  had  received  from  him  some 
kindly  service  or  noble  lesson. 

Honest  Labor.  —  Another  debt  that  we  owe  the  monks 
is  for  teaching  the  world  the  duty  and  dignity  of  work.  In 
ancient  times  nearly  all  manual  labor  was  put  upon  slaves. 
Both  the  Romans  and  the  Greeks  held  themselves  above  it. 
The  monk  set  a  noble  example  of  the  duty  of  honest  labor, 
and  the  world  to-day  is  according  more  and  more  honor  to 
the  man  who  toils. 

Monastery  Self-supporting. —  The  abbot  divided  the  labor 
among  the  monks,  and  all  the  needs  of  the  monastery  were 
supplied  on  the  spot.  Each  was  a  model  farm,  following 
the  plan  of  a  Roman  villa.  Every  monastery  had  its  own 
tanner,  shoemaker,  and  saddler,  its  blacksmith  and  worker 
in  iron,  its  carpenter  and  mason,  sheep  tender  and  farmers. 
The  clothing  of  the  monks  was  made  by  their  own  hands, 
from  wool  grown  upon  the  backs  of  their  own  sheep.  Some 
spun  the  yarn,  others  wove  the  cloth,  and  still  others  dyed 
it  the  desired  color;  then  it  was  at  last  ready  for  the  tailor. 
The  wheat  and  other  grain  were  grown  upon  their  own 
lands  and  ground  at  their  own  mill.  They  made  wine 
Irom  the  fruit  of  their  vineyards,  and  they  even  brewed 
thel~  own  beer.  In  this  way  skill  in  the  different  trades  was 
kept  a'ive  through  the  Dark  Ages. 


94        DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

Commerce.  —  The  monks  sometimes  had  a  surplus  ot 
products,  which  it  was  thought  best  to  sell.  In  some 
cases  they  needed  to  purchase  raw  materials  for  their  in- 
dustry. And  so  they  came  into  commercial  relation  with 
the  outside  world.  Wine  and  woolen  stuffs  were  sold  and 
sent  to  other  cities.  In  this  way  new  arts  and  new  knowl- 
edge were  brought  in. 

Good  Roads  Needed.  —  The  monasteries  came  to  take 
an  interest  in  roads,  and  some  religious  houses  were  founded 
for  the  very  purpose  of  repairing  roads  and  rebuilding  bridges. 
Such  work  was  considered  pious.  Large  abbeys  on  some 
rivers  had  great  numbers  of  carrying  vessels,  while  the 
peasants  on  their  estates  were  required  to  furnish  oxen  and 
wagons  for  land  transportation.  The  monasteries  often 
built  up  a  prosperous  trade  and  became  wealthy.  Later 
they  were  the  chief  objects  of  the  plundering  raids  of  the 
Danes  and  Northmen. 

Monks  Kept  Art  Alive.  —  The  monks  not  only  taught 
better  methods  of  agriculture,  and  kept  alive  ancient  learn- 
ing ;  but  they  preserved  some  interest  in  the  fine  arts, 
although  their  drawing  consisted  of  little  more  than 
childish  scrawls.  They  also  composed  hymns  that  the 
church  will  never  cease  to  sing.  They  were  the  leaders  and 
guides  in  all  good  things,  until  the  Germans  were  ready  to 
take  up  the  work  and  carry  it  on. 

A  Remarkable  Monk.  —  Some  monks  were  skillful  in 
doing  many  things.  In  the  time  of  Charles  the  Fat  of 
France,  a  certain  monk,  Totilo  by  name,  was  famous  as  a 
preacher  and  teacher,  a  poet  and  a  musical  composer,  and 
yet  was  able  to  turn  his  hand  to  painting,  sculpture,  or 
architecture.  Charles  cursed  those  who  had  made  a  monk 
of  such  a  brilliant  man,  because  he  would  like  to  have  nad 
him  as  an  ornament  to  his  court. 


THE   MONASTERIES  95 

Teaching  Everything.  —  The  monk  knew  his  Bible  well, 
and  he  taught  it  to  the  people.  •  Those  who  learned  to  read 
at  the  abbey  learned  to  read  their  Bibles.  Those  who 
never  learned  to  read,  the  monk  taught  by  sermons  and 
pictures.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  monks  did  much 
good  in  keeping  alive  the  desire  for  learning  among  the 
people.      In  return  for    this   the  monks  were  loved  and 


Melrose  Abbey. 

respected.  Centuries  later,  the  reading  of  the  Bible  caused 
much  religious  discussion. 

Shelter  Towns.  —  Under  the  shadow  of  monasteries 
towns  sprang  up,  and  in  these  towns  were  taken  many 
steps  toward  freedom  for  the  laboring  classes. 

Becoming  Wealthy.  —  The  monasteries  gradually  be- 
came the  great  landowners,  and  the  abbots  became  very 
powerful.  Often  men  of  wealth,  desiring  to  spend  the  last 
years  of  their  life  in  quiet  and  study,  gave  large  tracts  of 
land  to  a  near-by  monastery,  and  there  sought  an  asylum 


96        DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

from  the  dangers  and  trouble  of  that  restless  and 
barbaric  age.  Many  pious  men  and  women  left  gifts 
to  their  favorite  abbeys,  and  since  an  abbey  had  no 
children  among  whom  to  divide  its  wealth,  it  never  lost  any 
of  it,  and  more  money  was  always  coming  in. 

Riches.  —  Monasteries  came  in  later  times  to  own 
boundless  forests  and  vast  tracks  of  land  upon  which  farm- 
ers liked  to  live  because  the  land  was  fertile  and  could  be 
secured  at  a  low  rent.  From  the  natural  increase  in  the 
value  of  the  property,  the  abbots  became  wealthy  and 
some  of  them  even  lived  in  ease  and  comfort.  Since  some- 
times the  land  was  rented  to  farmers,  some  of  the  monks 
no  longer  worked  in  the  fields,  nor  did  they  need  to  spend 
hours  of  toil  in  a  dark  cheerless  cell  in  labor  with  the  pen. 

Abbeys  Refuse  to  Pay  Taxes.  —  At  this  period  the  mon- 
asteries were  exempt  from  paying  taxes,  for  it  was  then 
generally  recognized  that  their  debts  to  the  government 
were  cancelled  by  their  prayers,  their  charities  to  the  poor, 
by  the  educational  work  that  they  were  doing  and  by  the 
agricultural  improvements  that  they  had  made  in  the  land. 
In  monasteries  where  the  primitive  rule  was  religiously 
kept,  all  encroachments  of  ambitious  princes  met  with  op- 
position. The  monks  refused  to  pay  taxes,  and  so  they 
were  disbanded,  their  monasteries  were  destroyed  and  the 
state  confiscated  their  lands. 

Four  Friends  of  the  Teutons.  —  We  have  read  about 
four  great  helps  that  assisted  in  raising  our  German  fore- 
fathers to  the  level  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  (i)  There 
was  the  splendid  Latin  language,  which  enabled  the  Ger- 
mans to  talk  with  the  more  civilized  Latins.  Through 
this  their  barbarous  eyes  were  opened  to  many  new  ideas. 
(2)  The  matchless  system  of  Roman  laws  did  much  to  quiet 
disputes  and  to  bring  about  peace,  to  encourage  the  Germans 


THE   MONASTERIES 


97 


to  cease  fighting  and  to  settle  down  to  quiet  farm  life. 
(3)  The  monks  kept  alive  knowledge  and  crafts  and  turned 
these  good  things  over  to  the  Germans  when  they  were  ready 
to  learn.  (4)  The  church,  with  its  noble  bishops  and  priests, 
was  the  greatest  aid  of  all.  It  checked  the  wild  life  and 
habits  of  the  Germans,  taught  peace  and  kindness,  and  held 
out  the  rewards  of  heaven  to  those  who  lived  righteous 
lives. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  monasteries.  2.  Where  were  they  built  ?  3.  Why  ? 
4.  What  property  had  they  ?  5.  How  did  they  gain  great  power  ? 
6.  What  rules  governed  the  monks'  lives?  7.  What  work  did  the 
monks  do  ?  8.  How  did  they  dress  ?  9.  What  was  their  attitude 
toward  work?  10.  Describe  their  schools,  n.  How  did  they  in- 
fluence commerce  ?  12.  What  was  their  influence  upon  the  Teutons  ? 
13.  What  great  wealth  did  the  monasteries  acquire?  14.  How? 
15.  What  was  the  result?  16.  What  brought  about  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  monasteries  ? 


CHAPTER   VII 
ENGLAND   AND   THE   SAXONS 

England  Robbed  of  Her  Strength.  —  England,  as  you 
remember,  was  also  a  part  of  the  Roman  empire;  let  us  see 
what  happened  there  when  Rome  fell.  The  Roman  gov- 
ernment, for  years,  had  been  enlisting  the  young  men  of 
England  in  her  legions.  They  were  sent  to  the  Rhine- 
Danube  boundary  or  elsewhere,  and  never  came  back. 
This  robbed  the  island  of  its  best  blood  and  its  fighting 
strength.  The  legions  stationed  in  England  probably  had 
been  enlisted  in  Gaul,  Spain,  or  Africa. 

Wild  Picts  Scale  the  Wall.  —  When  the  Goths  and 
Vandals  burst  over  the  Rhine-Danube  boundary,  Rome 
hastily  called  away  from  England  every  soldier  to  help 
turn  back  the  tide  of  barbarians  from  the  capital.  This 
left  England  at  the  mercy  of  the  wild  Picts  and  Scots,  who 
quickly  climbed  over  the  Roman  wall,  which  extended 
across  England,  and  began  to  loot  and  burn,  unchecked. 
The  Romanized  Britons  could  not  hold  their  own  because 
they  had  depended  so  long  upon  the  Roman  legions. 
Moreover,  they  could  not  act  together  because  of 
jealousy. 

The  Britons  Ask  the  Romans  for  Help.  —  The  Britons 
finally  wrote  to  the  Roman  general,  yEtius,  begging  him 
to  come  back  and  help  them  against  the  wild  Picts  and 
Scots.     This  was  their  message  :  — 

"  To  yEtius,  thrice  consul,  the  groans  of  the  Britons. 
The  barbarians  drive  us  to  the  sea,  the  sea  drives  us  back  to 

98 


ENGLAND   AND   THE   SAXONS 


99 


the  barbarians ;  between  them  we  are  exposed  to  two  kinds 
of  death :  we  are  either  slain  or  drowned." 

But  ^tius  had  his  hands  full  with  fighting  the  Goths 
and  Vandals,  and  he  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  the  prayer  of  the 
Britons. 

Barbarians  in  Front  and  Rear.  —  The  Britons  were  also 
attacked  along  the  coasts.  The  North  Sea  and  the  Eng- 
lish Channel  swarmed  with  heathen  Saxon  pirates.  The 
Saxons  were  Teutons  also,  and  the  most  cruel  of  all  the 
German  tribes.  They  had  lived  around  the  Baltic,  far 
from  the  empire,  and  had  received  none  of  its  gentle  and 
civilizing  influence.  The  Saxon  pirates  sported  about  in 
the  North  Sea  in  large,  flat-bottomed  boats.  These  were 
framed  of  light  timber  with  sides  and  upper  works  of  wicker, 
covered  with  strong  hides  to  keep  out  the  waves.  Because 
the  boats  were  so  light  and  could  ply  on  such  shallow 
water,  the  bold  pirates  easily  proceeded  far  up  the  smaller 
rivers.  Then  stealing  a  yoke  of  oxen,  they  transported  the 
light  boats  by  oxcart  to  the  headwaters  of  another  river,  driv- 
ing off  cattle  and  carrying  away  rich  plunder  as  they  went. 

Saxon  Sea  Rovers  Love  the  Sea.  —  They  were  skillful 
sailors,  much  at  home  upon  the  sea.  The  poorest  of  their 
sailors  could  handle  an  oar,  rear  a  sail,  or  act  as  captain  of 
a  vessel.  These  savage  Saxons  rejoiced  in  the  appearance 
of  a  tempest,  because  it  concealed  their  own  movements, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  scattered  the  fleets  of  their  enemy. 

Rob,  Burn,  and  Escape.  —  In  their  swift  barks  they 
swooped  down  upon  any  unguarded  district  very  suddenly, 
and  were  off  swiftly  before  an  army  could  be  summoned. 
The  next  day  they  appeared  in  another  district  far  away, 
burning,  slaying,  and  plundering.  Gathering  their  spoil 
upon  the  shore,  they  sacrificed  to  Odin  a  tenth  of  their  cap- 
tives, slaughtered  the  stolen  cattle  and  hogs,  and  vanished 


ioo     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 


in  safety.  In  this  manner  they  terrorized  the  entire  British 
coast  during  the  whole  of  the  summer  season,  disappearing 
upon  the  approach  of  winter  to  return  with  the  birds  in 
the  spring. 

The  Saxons  Come  to  Stay. — After  a  time  the  Saxons 
no  longer  invaded  the  island  for  mere  plunder.  They 
now  sought  to  get  a  permanent  foothold  in  the  land. 
They  built  strongholds,  in  which  they  collected  their  booty 


Saxon  Ships. 

and  from  which  they  made  dashes  farther  inland.  Against 
such  swarms  of  speedy  and  warlike  pirates,  the  British 
chiefs  could  do  but  little,  especially  as  they  did  not  act 
together,  but  were  often  engaged  in  petty  quarrels  among 
themselves. 

An  Old  Legend.  —  At  last,  according  to  a  legend,  Vorti- 
gern,  king  of  Kent,  who  had  raised  himself  above  other 
British  chiefs  by  his  bravery  and  wisdom,  hit  upon  a  shrewd 
plan.  Since  the  Picts  troubled  him  by  land  and  the  Saxons 
by  sea,  Vortigern  said  to  himself,  "  I  shall  do  well  if  I  can 
set  these  robbers  the  one  against  the  other."     So  in  449  he 


ENGLAND   AND   THE   SAXONS  soi 

called  in  Hengist  and  Horsa,  two  chiefs  of  the  Sawn  pisat.es; 
and  promised  to  give  them  the  island  of  Thanet,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Thames,  if  they  would  help  to  drive  out  the 
wild  Picts.  Hengist  and  Horsa  gladly  came  in  three  ships. 
They  at  once  pushed  back  the  Picts,  and  settled  upon 
Thanet. 

Too  Many  Friends.  —  For  some  years  they  were  content. 
Then  they  sent  word  to  their  kinsmen,  the  Angles,  telling 
them  of  the  worthlessness  of  the  Britons  and  of  the  richness 
of  their  lands.  At  that  there  came  swarms  of  Angles  and 
Jutes,  offering  to  fight  for  the  Britons  and  to  take  land  for 
their  pay.  Their  offer  was  refused,  because  the  Britons 
had  begun  to  fear  them  more  than  the  Picts.  The  new- 
comers, therefore,  angry  at  being  refused,  attacked  the 
Britons  themselves. 

The  Fatherland.  —  The  Angles  and  Saxons  came  from 
the  wild  Baltic  shores,  which  were  overgrown  with  big  tim- 
ber and  thick  scrub  down  to  the  water's  edge.  Their  far- 
reaching  woodlands  were  broken  only  by  shallow  lakes  and 
thick  swamps,  with  scattered  clearings  and  barbarian  camps. 
The  only  highways  were  the  rivers. 

England  a  Golden  Land  to  the  Teutons.  —  The  country 
upon  which  they  now  had  set  their  eyes  and  hearts  was 
largely  cleared  of  forests  and  yielded  good  crops.  Along 
the  rivers  were  long  meadows,  bordered  by  fine  hill  pastures 
with  herds  of  cattle  and  flocks  of  sheep  of  many  breeds. 
There  were  herb  gardens  and  orchards  and  vineyards  about 
the  houses,  and  broad  wheat  fields  of  many  acres,  produc- 
ing more  grain  than  the  island  could  use.  The  land  was 
tilled  with  improved  Roman  tools  —  iron-coltered  plows, 
iron  hoes,  picks,  and  spades. 

There  were  ironworks,  mines  of  tin  and  lead,  quarries, 
potteries,  brick  and  tile  kilns,  and  glassworks.     Scattered 


102     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

bvkr  the  I  and  'were  more  than  thirty  walled  towns  and  many 
military  camps  or  stations.  These  were  knit  together  by 
good,  well-graded,  stone-made  roads,  serviceable  all  the 
year  through  for  men,  horses,  and  wagons. 

The  rivers  were  bridged,  or  where  fordable,  they  were 
staked  and  stone-bedded.  Along  the  roads  were  farm- 
houses or  Roman  villas  with  their  farms  tilled  by  slave  or 
serf  labor.  The  ports  and  harbors  were  safe  and  conven- 
ient, and  a  constant  trade  was  carried  on  with  the  continent 
during  the  summer  months.  The  Britons  sold  and  sent 
out  grain,  metal,  jet,  slaves,  hounds,  and  horses.  Is  it 
any  wonder  that  England  appeared  like  a  golden  land  to 
the  wild  and  savage  Teutons  ? 

The  Saxons  Advance  Slowly.  —  The  Jutes,  Angles,  and 
Saxons  were  not  united,  but  were  broken  into  many  tribes, 
each  acting  for  itself.  Their  advance  was  therefore  slow, 
with  many  victories  and  many  defeats,  for  the  Britons 
disputed  every  foot  of  ground.  They  would  not  tamely 
submit  to  be  slaves  to  the  wild  Saxons.  The  sword  was 
bare  for  a  hundred  and  fifty  years.  But  the  barbarians, 
though  often  defeated,  never  retreated  far.  Little  by  little 
the  land  was  taken.  The  Britons  fought  behind  the  walls 
of  their  towns  until  the  Saxons  laid  waste  the  land,  cut  off 
all  supplies,  and  starved  them  out.  As  the  country  was 
overrun  by  the  enemy,  one  road  after  another  was  blocked, 
and  traffic  ceased.  Thus  the  trade,  which  alone  kept  the 
city  people  from  starving,  was  entirely  stopped.  When 
food  supplies  were  cut  off,  the  cities  melted  away.  The 
men  went  to  join  the  army  of  defense,  while  the  women  and 
children  followed  afoot,  traveling  by  night  and  probably 
through  the  woods  to  escape  the  fierce  Teutons. 

What  Became  of  the  Britons. — The  Saxons  did  not  de- 
mand one-third  or  two-thirds  of-  the  land,  as  did  the  Goths 


ENGLAND   AND   THE   SAXONS 


103 


and  Franks  on  the  continent,  but  they  took  it  all.  What 
became  of  the  Romanized  Britons  or  Welsh  we  do  not  know 
with  certainty.  No  records  of  those  dark  days  are  left  to 
us  —  no  books,  no  writings,  save  such  a  brief  fact  about  a 
battle  as,  "  There  was  not  a  Briton  left."  Just  what  hap- 
pened will  never  be  known.  In  the  eastern  part  of  England 
the  Britons  were  probably  nearly  all  killed  off,  while  farther 
west  there  was  perhaps  a  sprinkling  of  them  left.  Those 
who  were  spared  were  made  slaves.  They  became  the  only 
teachers  left  to  the  savage 
Saxons.  There  are  signs 
that  some  of  the  Britons 
were  driven  to  the  caves  of 
Yorkshire  for  shelter  from 
the  fierce  invaders.  One  of 
these  caves  contains  bones, 
household  implements,  and 
other  traces  of  the  Britons. 
The  Saxons  Make  a 
Clean  Sweep. —The  Angles 
and  Saxons,  fresh  from  the 
sea  and  pirate  life,  or  from 

the  bleak  flats  and  sand  hills  of  Denmark,  knew  nothing  of 
the  great  Roman  civilization,  nothing  of  city  life,  nothing 
of  Roman  law.  They  knew  nothing  of  Christianity,  the 
Roman  religion,  and  they  had  neither  reverence  nor  respect 
for  it.  So,  wherever  they  got  a  foothold,  those  heathen 
Saxons  made  a  clean  sweep  of  everything.  Not  only  did  the 
Britons  disappear,  except  those  who  were  made  slaves,  but 
everything  the  Romans  had  built  up  perished  by  fire  and 
sword.  Great  cities  one  by  one  were  stormed,  fired,  and 
abandoned.  Where  were  once  splendid  cities,  were  now 
fallen  towers,  desecrated  altars,  broken  walls ;   and  the  wi- 


the Saxon  Tool  and  Weapon. 


104     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

buried  bodies  of  the  slain  were  left  to  the  wild  beasts  and 
birds. 

London  a  Shell.  —  "  There  was  nothing  left  in  the  city 
of  London  except  the  deserted  homes,  the  churches,  the 
forum,  the  bridge,  and  the  wall.  In  the  port  and  below 
the  bridge  there  were  no  ships,  on  the  wharf  there  were  no 
goods,  in  the  market  place  there  was  no  trade,  in  the  streets 
there  were  no  people.  The  deserted  city,  all  day  long, 
presented  the  appearance  of  a  city  at  sunrise,  when  the 
folk  are  asleep  in  their  peaceful  beds.  And,  as  with  London, 
so  with  other  towns ;  they  were  ruined  and  deserted ;  all 
over  the  country  these  ruins  stood  dotted  about.  Here 
and  there,  perhaps,  a  town  survived."  But  the  people 
who  knew  how  to  live  in  cities  were  nowhere  to  be  seen. 

Destruction  in  the  Country.  —  The  magnificent  villas 
in  the  country  were  burned  down,  the  splendid  network  of 
stone-made  highways,  which  had  made  it  possible  for  all 
England  to  reach  the  continent  with  valuable  streams  of 
trade,  were  neglected.  The  bridges  were  down,  and  trade 
and  travel  were  thus  cut  off.  Towns  and  cities,  if  any  had 
been  spared  from  Saxon  fire  and  sword,  now  crumbled  away 
for  lack  of  trade.  The  ironworks,  the  mines  for  tin  and 
lead,  the  quarries,  potteries,  brick  and  tile  kilns,  and  glass- 
works were  silent  and  in  ruins.  The  herb  gardens,  or- 
chards, and  vineyards  were  laid  waste. 

The  Language  Disappears.  —  The  Saxons  rooted  out 
and  destroyed  the  Welsh  language  of  the  lower  rural  people, 
and  the  Latin  of  the  villas,  towns,  and  cities.  Both  lan- 
guages were  foreign  to  the  Saxons,  who  hated  them  equally. 
Laws  and  schools  were  swept  away  utterly. 

Christianity  Gone.  —  The  pagan  Saxons  were  also  bent 
on  driving  away  all  traces  of  Christianity.  Goths  and 
Franks  on  the  continent  had  bowed  before  Christian  bishops 


ENGLAND  AND  THE  SAXONS        105 

and  had  respected  Christian  churches.  But  the  fierce 
Angles  and  Saxons  hated  Christianity  as  much  as  they  did 
the  Britons,  and  they  resolved  to  drive  both  from  the  land 
that  was  to  be  their  home.  The  religion  of  Odin  and  Thor 
took  the  place  of  the  religion  of  Christ,  and  the  country 
became  a  heathen  country. 

In  the  death  of  Christianity  there  was  left  no  bridge  for 
the  Saxons  into  civilized  life,  no  priest  to  act  as  go-between, 
no  monks  to  show  better  ways  of  living.  The  very  days  of 
the  week  were  renamed  after  the  heathen  gods  :  The  Sun's 
day,  the  Moon's  day,  Tiu's  day,  Woden's  day,  Thor's  day, 
and  Frigu's  day.  Thus  the  Anglo-Saxons  became  the  one 
pure  and  unmixed  German  nation  that  arose  upon  the 
wreck  of  Rome. 

How  the  Angles  and  Saxons  Settled.  —  The  Saxons 
hated  cities  and  walled  places.  They  preferred  to  settle 
upon  clearings  and  homesteads  often  far  apart,  as  they 
had  done  in  the  wilds  of  Germany.  This  scattered  farm 
life  kept  them  for  many,  many  years  from  uniting  to  form 
one  people.  There  were  the  East  Saxons  of  Essex,  the 
Middle  Saxons  of  Middlesex,  and  the  West  Saxons  of 
Wessex.  The  Angles  also  were  divided  into  several  na- 
tions, each  with  its  separate  territory  and  king.  So  when, 
four  hundred  years  later,  they  were  attacked  by  the  Danes, 
the  Anglo-Saxon  nations  were  not  united  and  we  can  easily 
judge  what  happened. 

The  Casting  of  Lots.  —  The  Germans  divided  the  land 
of  England  by  casting  lots.  A  stretch  of  country  was 
divided  into  parcels  according  to  the  number  of  villas,  or 
estates,  and  these  were  given  out  by  drawing  lots.  Around 
the  ruins  of  a  Roman  city  there  were  probably  a  number  of 
lots.  A  barbarian  noble  or  thane  took  several,  while  a 
small  knot  of  brothers  or  kinsmen,  drew  but  one. 


106     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

The  Roman  Villa.  —  Buildings,  if  not  burned  down  in 
the  raids  preceding  the  settlement,  were  usually  left  to 
fall  into  decay.  Sometimes  they  were  pulled  down,  and 
the  material  used  to  build  up  a  pigsty  or  to  repair  a  road. 
In  a  few  cases  they  may  have  been  taken  over  as  the  dwelling 
of  a  Saxon  settler.  Thus  there  was  left  scarely  a  trace  of 
Roman  civilization,  save  here  and  there  a  heap  of  ruins. 

England  Becomes  a  Heathen  Land.  —  We  have  read 
how  the  heathen  Saxons  utterly  destroyed  all  churches  and 
abbeys  in  Britain,  wiped  Christianity  away,  and  brought 
in  the  religion  of  Thor  and  Odin.  We  remember  how  the 
just  laws  of  Rome  were  put  aside,  and  the  splendid  Latin 
language  and  literature  were  lost.  Much  of  the  knowledge 
of  raising  crops  was  forgotten.  The  skill  in  building,  the 
blowing  of  glass,  and  the  work  in  metals  and  handicraft  — 
everything  that  a  thousand  years  of  civilizedj  life  had 
developed  —  was  swept  away ;  and  Britain  became  the 
heathen  land  of  the  Saxons.  The  country  was  named 
England  after  the  Angles,  and  the  language,  Anglo-Saxon, 
became  the  mother  of  our  English  speech. 

The  English  a  Pure  Teutonic  People.  —  The  Angles  and 
Saxons  transferred  to  their  new  island  home  the  rude  laws 
and  customs,  the  language  and  religion  of  the  German 
wilderness.  No  tribe  of  Teutons  was  so  much  given  to 
robbery  and  bloodshed,  to  fierce  and  revengeful  family 
feuds,  as  the  Anglo-Saxons.  If  a  man  were  murdered,  his 
relatives  took  a  speedy  vengeance.  While  the  Saxon  war- 
riors swept  away  everything  that  the  Romans  had  built  up 
in  England,  still  they  brought  with  them  a  young  and  vigor- 
ous race,  with  fresh  blood,  strong  muscles,  and  keen  minds, 
which,  in  the  future,  was  to  do  great  deeds  for  the  world. 

These  freemen  of  the  German  wilderness  had  a  love  of 
liberty,  and  a  proud  spirit  that  refused  to  obey  any  laws 


ENGLAND   AND   THE   SAXONS  107 

except  those  that  they  made  themselves.  They  were  bold 
and  brave,  willing  to  work,  to  think,  and  to  learn,  and  their 
new  island  home  was  an  ideal  place  in  which  to  build  a 
great  nation.  We  shall  soon  see  them  outstripping  their 
kinsmen  on  the  continental  ruins  of  Rome.  Of  all  the  Ger- 
man nations  who  settled  in  the  empire,  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
alone,  held  to  their  language,  their  customs,  and  their  laws. 
These,  they  thought,  were  a  good  foundation  to  build  upon ; 
and  so  they  were. 

A  Little  Saved.  —  In  places  a  few  Roman  slaves  and 
serfs  escaped  the  sword,  nobody  knows  how  many;  and 
these  may  have  saved  for  the  rude  Saxons  a  little  Roman 
knowledge  and  skill  in  weaving,  in  the  raising  of  grain, 
fruit,  and  vegetables,  in  the  making  of  weapons  and  iron 
farm  tools,  and  in  the  building  of  ships.  This  was  the 
only  knowledge  or  skill  that  the  heathen  Saxon  tribes  could 
then  use  or  appreciate. 

The  Low  Beginning.  —  From  this  low  stage  our  Anglo- 
Saxon  forefathers  began  their  growth  and  their  rise  toward 
civilized  living.  For  a  hundred  years  and  more,  England 
remained  a  heathen  land  with  the  petty  tribes  fighting  one 
another.  At  last  in  597  a  very  important  thing  happened, 
for  Christianity  was  then  brought  back  to  England  by  mis- 
sionaries from  the  pope. 

Saxon  Slaves  in  Rome.  —  An  old  story  says  that  a  few 
years  before  this  time  some  boys,  with  white  faces,  fair  skins, 
and  beautiful  eyes  and  hair,  appeared  for  sale  at  the  slave 
market  in  Rome.  As  it  happened,  a  Roman  deacon,  named 
Gregory,  saw  those  handsome  slave  boys  and  asked  their 
race,  for  he  admired  them  very  much.  He  was  told  they 
were  Angles  from  the  heathen  country  of  England.  He 
declared  that  they  looked  more  like  angels  and  that  such 
fine  people  ought  to  be  saved  from  paganism. 


108     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

Augustine  Sent  to  England.  —  Some  years  later  Gregory 
became  pope,  and  as  head  of  the  church,  he  organized  a 
body  of  monks  to  go  to  England  as  missionaries.  Augus- 
tine was  their  leader.  He  passed  through  France  and  ob- 
tained some  helpers  who  could  speak  Anglo-Saxon.  They 
crossed  the  channel,  and  in  597  landed  in  Kent,  a  petty 
kingdom  of  England. 

Augustine  Kindly  Received.  —  Augustine  easily  obtained 
a  hearing  because  the  king  of  Kent  had  married  a  Christian 
woman  from  Paris,  named  Bertha.  She  had  taken  a 
Christian  bishop  with  her  to  her  heathen  home.  So  when 
Augustine  landed,  the  king  of  Kent  received  him  kindly, 
but  only  in  the  open  air,  for  the  king  feared  Augustine 
might  be  able  to  exert  some  magical  power  indoors.  Augus- 
tine and  his  companions  came  to  the  meeting  solemnly 
chanting  songs  and  bearing  a  silver  cross  and  a  picture  of 
Christ  painted  upon  a  board.  He  preached  to  the  king, 
and  was  given  permission  to  teach  and  preach  throughout 
the  kingdom.  After  a  time  the  king  of  Kent  and  many  of 
his  people  became  Christians. 

Christ  Triumphs  over  Thor  and  Odin.  —  This  was  but 
the  beginning,  for  gradually  monasteries  appeared  in  many 
places ;  and  the  entire  island  was  slowly  won  back  to 
Christianity.  The  old  Teutons  were  very  unwilling  to 
give  up  Thor  and  Odin  and  their  drunken  feasts,  but  Chris- 
tianity brought  such  hopeful  and  comforting  messages  to 
the  slave  and  to  the  poor  and  miserable,  including  pro- 
tection against  the  proud  and  the  mighty,  that  they  gladly 
adopted  it.  All  classes  were  at  last  won  over  to  Christ  by 
his  noble  teachings. 

The  Church  a  Civilizer.  —  In  many  ways  the  church 
became  a  leader  and  an  example  to  the  Saxons.  It  taught 
those  rough  people  new  habits,  new  laws,  and  manners. 


ENGLAND   AND   THE   SAXONS 


109 


It  called  gluttony  and  drunkenness  sins,  it  forbade  the 
killing  of  little  children,  it  taught  men  that  it  was  wrong 
to  divorce  a  good  wife,  wrong  to  be  cruel  to  a  serf  or  slave. 
The  church  denounced  revenge,  it  forbade  work  on  Sun- 
days. It  taught  that  peace  is  better  than  war,  that  slavery 
is  wrong,  and  that  work  is  honorable. 

The  Church  on  Trade  and  Language.  —  The  church, 
with  its  pilgrimages  to  Rome,  brought  England  into  con- 
tact with  the  continent,  where  the  Anglo-Saxons,  received 
many  new  ideas.  Commerce  also  sprang  up  with  the  con- 
tinent, and  the  Saxons  traded  for  good  things  to  eat  and 
wear  and  better  tools  to  work  with. 

Since  the  bishops  and  priests  from  all  England  often  met 
in  councils,  they  came  gradually  to  use  a  mixture  of  the 
dialects  of  the  Angles  and  the  Saxons,  and  in  time  Anglo- 
Saxon  was  spoken  by  the  churchmen.  The  New  Testament 
was  printed  in  this  Anglo-Saxon,  and  the  people  all  came  to 
use  it,  for  they  and  their  priests  must  speak  so  as  to  under- 
stand one  another.  Monasteries  grew  up  in  many  places,  and 
the  monks  showed  the  Saxons  better  ways  of  raising  crops, 
how  to  drain  swamps,  and  how  to  weave  better  clothing. 

A  Help  Toward  Union.  —  The  people  all  belonged  now  to 
one  church  with  an  archbishop  at  its  head,  and  they  gradu- 
ally came  to  think  more  about  having  one  strong  kingdom 
instead  of  so  many  weak  ones. 

No  Need  of  Roads.  —  The  Roman  roads  in  Britain,  like 
those  on  the  continent,  were  too  well  built  to  be  wholly 
ruined  by  neglect.  Portions  of  them  may  still  be  seen  to- 
day, hard  and  serviceable.  But  in  the  old  Saxon  days  they 
were  broken  through  in  places,  bridges  were  down,  and  no- 
where were  they  repaired.  The  towns  that  they  had  for- 
merly connected  were  in  ruins,  because  trade  was  gone,  and 
there  was  little  need  for  roads. 


no     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

Supplying  Their  Own  Wants.  —  The  people  lived  the 
simple  farm  or  village  life,  supplying  about  all  their  own 
needs.  There  were  only  two  articles  that  they  could  not 
everywhere  produce  for  themselves.  These  were  iron  for 
weapons  and  implements,  and  salt  for  daily  use.  So  iron 
and  salt  were  brought  in  by  traders. 

Cities.  — ■  Along  the  coast  where  the  harbors  were  good 
were  clusters  of  buildings,  which  were  the  beginnings  of 
future  cities.  Near  the  large  abbeys,  towns  were  also 
starting  up.  But  the  Saxons  hated  cities  and  walled  places, 
and  lived  almost  entirely  in  the  country. 

The  Country.  —  Nearly  all  the  country  was  waste  and 
woodlands,  where  roamed  the  great  herds  of  swine  for 
acorns  and  nuts.  There  was  some  pasture  land  for  cattle, 
horses,  and  sheep.  Along  the  streams  were  meadow  lands 
with  homestead  after  homestead  clear  of  brush  and  thicket. 
About  each  homestead  were  a  ditch  and  a  fence,  and  near 
by  were  acres  of  plowland  used  to  grow  wheat,  rye,  and 
barley.  Here  could  be  seen  great  ox-teams  dragging  the 
plows  —  eight  oxen  to  each.  Along  the  streams  were  mills 
for  grinding  corn.  Upon  the  coast  were  well-to-do  salt- 
men  with  their  salt  pans  and  fishermen  washing  their  nets. 
Everywhere  the  lord's  officer,  called  a  reeve,  was  gathering 
his  dues,  or  rent,  of  grain,  fish,  or  salt.  The  chief  build- 
ings in  the  village  were  the  Lord's  hall,  the  little  church, 
and  the  shop,  where  rang  the  blacksmith's  anvil.  The 
woodlands  echoed  with  hound  and  hunter's  horn. 

A  Yeoman's  New  Home. — The  Saxon  gentleman  or 
yeoman's  homestead  was  made  up  of  several  buildings. 
The  long,  timber-roofed  hall,  the  bellhouse,  the  big  gate, 
and  the  moat  about  the  stockade  were  the  signs  of  a  gen- 
tleman's house.  There  were  bowers,  or  homesteads  for  the 
gentleman  and  his  family,  and  some  dozen  or  score  of  rush- 


ENGLAND   AND   THE   SAXONS 


in 


thatched  huts  for  the  serfs  and  bondsmen.  Among  them 
were  seen  the  storehouse  and  the  stacks,  also  the  horse 
shed  and  wagon  shed. 

Women  Slaves.  —  The  Saxon  lord  had  everything  that 
he  needed  made  in  his  own  house.  Women  slaves,  who 
were  bought  and  sold  like  cattle,  spun  yarn  and  wove  cloth 
of  linen  and  wool;    they  ground  flour  from  various  kinds 


The  Residence  of  a  Saxon  Nobleman. 

of  grain  in  hand  mills  or  stone  querns,  and  made  bread  in 
round,  flat  cakes ;  they  pickled,  smoked,  and  salted  down 
meat,  and  made  sausages ;  they  made  ale,  mead,  and  wine. 
Slaves  on  the  Farm.  —  On  the  farm  were  many  laborers, 
also  slaves.  There  were  beekeepers,  swineherds,  cow- 
herds, oxherds,  shepherds,  cheesewrights,  and  barn- 
keepers.  From  an  old  English  dialogue  we  read  the  duties 
of  some  of  the  slaves.  The  plowman  says :  "  I  work  hard ; 
I  go  out  at  daybreak,  driving  the  oxen  to  the  field,  and  I 


H2     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

yoke  them  to  the  plow.  Be  it  never  so  stark  winter  I  dare 
not  linger  at  home  for  awe  of  my  lord ;  but  having  yoked 
my  oxen,  and  fastened  the  share  and  coulter,  every  day 
I  must  plow  a  full  acre  or  more.  I  have  a  boy  driving 
the  oxen  with  a  goad  iron,  who  is  hoarse  with  cold  and 
shouting ;  I  have  to  fill  the  oxen's  mangers  with  hay 
and  water  them.  Mighty  hard  work  it  is  for  I  am  not 
free." 

The  Shepherd  Complains  in  These  Words.  — "  In  the 
first  of  the  morning  I  drive  my  sheep  to  pasture,"  says  the 
shepherd,  "  and  stand  over  them  in  heat  and  cold  with 
my  dogs,  lest  the  wolves  swallow  them  up  ;  and  I  lead  them 
back  to  their  folds,  and  milk  them  twice  a  day,  and  their 
folds  I  move ;  and  I  make  cheese  and  butter,  and  I  am  true 
to  my  lord."  The  oxherd  says :  "  When  the  plowman 
unyokes  the  oxen,  I  lead  them  to  pasture,  and  all  night  I 
stand  over  them,  waking  against  thieves ;  and  then  again 
in  the  early  morning  I  betake  them,  well-filled  and  watered, 
to  the  plowman." 

Serfs.  —  Serfs  were  slowly  getting  some  rights.  Some 
were  bound  to  the  soil  and  could  not  be  sold  unless  the  land 
was  sold  with  them.  They  paid  rents  and  worked  part 
time  for  the  lord.  Still  this  was  much  better  than  slavery, 
for  they  could  rear  their  families  in  peace. 

Laws  Unwritten.  —  The  laws  of  the  early  Anglo-Saxons 
were,  of  course,  unwritten.  They  were  merely  repeated 
from  memory  by  a  "  lawman,"  but  they  were  looked  upon 
as  divine  and  not  to  be  changed.  As  times  grew  better 
and  new  needs  arose,  the  "  lawman  "  and  the  folkmoot, 
a  gathering  of  the  freemen,  gradually  softened  or  changed 
the  rude  laws  without  knowing  that  they  did  so.  In  this 
way  the  laws  were  slowly  growing  better  without  any- 
body's knowing  it. 


ENGLAND  AND  THE  SAXONS        113 

The  Effect  of  the  Church  on  Laws.  —  When  the  church 
came,  bringing  along  written  church  laws,  the  time  was  soon 
ripe  to  write  down  the  common  laws;  and  after  this  was 
done,  the  laws  ceased  to  change  and  to  grow  of  themselves, 
for  they  were  written  down  in  black  and  white.  The  people 
had  to  give  up  the  idea  that  laws  are  divine  and  not  to  be 
changed.  They  now  set  about  to  change  them  purposely. 
As  the  years  passed  the  people  wished  to  do  away  with  the 
crudest  laws.  Thus  the  Anglo-Saxon  laws  began  to  grow 
along  lines  of  reason  and  common  sense. 

English  Laws  Spread.  —  In  this  way  English  laws  came 
to  be  very  different  from  those  governing  countries  that 
copied  after  the  laws  of  Rome.  Millions  of  people,  not 
only  in  England  and  America,  but  in  Canada,  South  Africa, 
and  Australia  are  to-day  living  under  laws  that  grew  out 
of  the  common  law  of  these  old  Anglo-Saxons. 

English  Ruled  Themselves.  —  The  village,  with  the 
surrounding  farm  lands,  woods,  and  waste  grounds,  made 
up  what  came  to  be  called  the  township.  The  yeomen, 
or  freemen,  of  a  township  gathered  at  midsummer,  and  in 
spring  and  fall,  under  the  sacred  oak  in  a  meeting  called  a 
moot.  This  meeting  gave  forth  the  laws  and  held  court 
for  the  trial  of  law-breakers.  So  every  freeman  had  his 
say  in  making  the  laws  and  in  judging  those  who  broke 
them. 

The  Saxons  Elect  Their  King.  —  Among  the  early  Ger- 
man tribes  the  kings  were  always  elected  by  the  freemen. 
They  usually  chose  the  eldest  son  of  the  king  to  succeed 
to  the  throne  ;  but  amid  such  a  warlike  society,  it  very  often 
happened  that  the  king's  sons  all  fell  in  battle  before  their 
father.  In  that  case  the  freemen  were  forced  to  choose  a 
king.  This  custom  of  electing  kings  was  always  kept  in 
mind  by  the  Anglo-Saxons.     They  held  that  a  king  got 


H4     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

his  right  to  rule  from  the  people ;  and  that  if  he  ruled  badly, 
the  people  had  a  right  to  depose  him  and  elect  another. 
This  right  to  elect  and  dethrone  kings  was  forgotten  by 
the  Franks,  Goths,  and  Lombards  on  the  continent,  and 
their  rulers  often  became  tyrants. 

Wessex  the  Chief  Kingdom.  —  Several  shires  or  counties 
made  a  little  kingdom  that  was  ruled  over  by  a  king  and 
a  body  of  nobles  called  the  Witan,  who  advised  the  king 
and  helped  make  the  laws  for  the  kingdom.  These  king- 
doms were  many,  and  they  were  continually  at  war  with 
one  another.  The  stronger  people  with  the  best  kings  got 
the  upper  hand,  and  so  the  smaller  kingdoms  were  swallowed 
by  them.  Then,  again,  the  larger  ones  fought  it  out,  until 
Wessex,  or  the  kingdom  of  the  West  Saxons,  proved  itself 
the  strongest  of  all. 

QUESTIONS 

Britain  —  i.  Who  lived  in  Britain  before  the  Romans  came? 
2.  What  robbed  Britain  of  her  strength  ?  3.  What  troubles  was  she 
having  ?  4.  Where  did  she  beg  for  help  ?  5.  Why  ?  6.  Where 
was  the  home  of  the  Saxons  ?  7.  What  kind  of  a  people  were  they  ? 
8.  How  do  you  account  for  these  characteristics  ?  9.  How  did  they 
bother  Britain?  10.  Where  in  Britain  did  they  settle?  11.  Who 
were  the  two  leaders  ?  12.  Why  was  it  easy  for  the  Saxons  to  subdue 
the  Britons?  13.  Was  it  fortunate  or  unfortunate  for  the  Britons? 
14.  Who  were  the  Angles?  15.  Discuss  their  coming  to  Britain. 
16.  The  fact  that  Britain  is  called  England,  or  Angleland  to-day,  tells  us 
what  ?  17.  Why  did  the  Saxons  and  Angles  like  Britain  ?  18.  Who 
were  the  Jutes?  19.  Why  did  it  take  the  barbarians  so  long  to 
conquer  Britain  ?  20.  How  was  Britain  changed  by  these  invasions  ? 
21.  What  became  of  the  Britons?  22.  Describe  London  after  the 
invasions.  23.  Show  the  effect  of  the  invasions  upon  the  language,  in- 
dustries, laws,  schools,  commerce,  and  religion.  24.  How  were  the 
Anglo-Saxons  different  from  the  Goths  ?  25.  Why  did  England  become 
purely  German  ?  26.  How  did  the  Anglo-Saxons  settle  in  Britain  ? 
27.   What  kind  of  government  did  they  have  ?     28.   How  was  the 


ENGLAND  AND  THE  SAXONS        115 

land  divided?  29.  Who  were  the  yeomen?  30.  Describe  the 
homestead.  31.  What  good  qualities  are  found  in  these  Anglo- 
Saxons?  32.  How  did  the  Anglo-Saxons  really  make  England 
their  home,  as  to  language,  laws,  religion,  and  customs?  33.  What 
little  of  the  civilization  was  saved  ?  34.  How  ?  35.  What  did  these 
barbarians  need  most  ?  36.  Why?  37.  What  would  it  do  for  them  ? 
38.  When  did  Britain  become  England?  39.  How  did  England 
become  Christian  ?  40.  Who  sent  Augustine  to  England  ?  41.  What 
helpers  had  he?  42.  What  kind  of  reception  did  he  receive? 
43.  What  work  did  he  do  ?  44.  Show  the  effect  of  Christianity  upon 
England. 

Condition  of  the  Country  —  45.  Where  were  the  cities? 
46.  Why?  47.  What  trade  was  there  ?  48.  What  kind  of  roads  had 
they?  49.  What  industries  were  there?  50.  Why  was  the  black- 
smith so  important?  51.  What  animals  had  they?  52.  What 
grains  were  raised?  53.  What  was  the  work  of  the  slaves? 
54.  Who  were  the  serfs  ?  55.  How  were  they  different  from  slaves  ? 
56.  How  had  English  law  grown  ?  57.  In  what  way  had  the  church 
affected  the  laws?  58.  How  was  the  village  governed?  59.  How 
was  the  county  governed  ?  60.  How  was  the  king  chosen  ?  61.  How 
had  his  power  increased?  62.  In  what  way  did  the  government  of 
England  differ  from  that  on  the  continent?  63.  How  do  you  ac- 
count for  this  difference  ? 


CHAPTER  VIII 
ALFRED   THE    GREAT   AND   THE   DANES 

Saxon  England  No  Longer  Heathen.  —  Since  England 
had  again  become  a  Christian  country,  with  monasteries 
and  Christian  priests  in  every  little  kingdom,  the  people 
were  fast  learning  all  the  lessons  that  the  monks  and  the 
priests  could  teach  —  better  ways  of  tilling  the  soil,  better 
ways  of  living,  better  education,  better  laws.  They  were 
beginning  to  trade  more,  and  thus  they  were  bringing  in 
from  the  continent  many  new  ideas,  new  tools,  and  new 
luxuries  of  dress  and  food.  They  were  fighting  less,  since 
the  petty  little  states  were  being  swallowed  up  in  the  larger 
kingdoms,  with  Wessex  the  strongest  of  all. 

A  New  Enemy.  —  While  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  thus 
making  long  strides  forward  in  civilization,  and  the  future 
was  looking  bright,  a  new  and  fierce  enemy  appeared. 
Warrior  pirates  began  to  be  seen  in  the  English  Channel 
in  great  ships.  These  ships  were  sometimes  seventy  feet 
long,  but  with  a  depth  of  little  more  than  three  feet,  so  that 
they  could  ply  on  very  shallow  waters.  Besides  they  were 
built  for  speed.  They  were  propelled  by  sails,  and  when 
the  wind  was  low,  by  fifty  or  sixty  oars.  On  their  sails 
were  painted  dragons  or  other  monsters. 

The  Danes.  —  These  swift  vessels  were  filled  with  bold 
warriors  well-armed  with  swords  and  spears,  with  battle- 
axes,  bows  and  arrows,  and  shields.  They  carried  no  food, 
but  landed  at  sunset  and  robbed  some  farm  of  its  sheep  and 
cattle,  then  they  feasted  and  slept  on  the  shore,  and  at  day- 

116 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT  AND  THE  DANES 


117 


break  they  had  disappeared  to  strike  somewhere  else  the 
following  evening.  These  horrible  sea  wolves  were  the 
Danes  and  the  Northmen.     They  are  also  called  Vikings. 

Growing  Bolder.  —  While  the  Danes  came  at  first  not 
to  fight,  but  to  plunder  and  sail  away,  they  soon  grew 
bolder.  In  many  ships  they  rowed  up  the  rivers,  surprised 
and  looted  a  village  or  town,  carried  off  everything  they 
wished,  burned  and  killed, 
and  vanished  before  an  army 
could  be  gathered.  So  swift 
were  these  pirate  vessels  that 
there  was  no  knowing  where 
they  would  strike  next,  and 
the  English  were  helpless. 

Their  Savage  Customs.  — 
Among  all  the  fierce  fighters 
of  those  times,  the  Danes 
were  the  fiercest.  They  had 
nothing  but  contempt  for 
pain  or  death.  It  is  said 
that  a  noble  Dane,  who  was 
taken  prisoner,  was  offered 
the  choice  of  death  by  burn- 
ing or  marriage  with  the  king's  daughter,  and  he  grimly 
chose  to  die  at  the  stake. 

Their  Prisoners.  —  They  had  no  pity  for  their  prisoners 
or  captives.  The  women,  even  the  daughters  of  kings,  were 
most  shamefully  treated  and  thrown  to  the  common  sol- 
diers as  slaves.  The  men  were  slain,  often  by  tortures  too 
horrible  to  mention.  The  Danes  enjoyed  hewing  down  the 
priest  at  his  altar,  and  revelled  in  the  grim  sport  of  tossing 
babes  from  pike  to  pike.  The  English  cried  in  terror, 
"Deliver  us,  O  Lord,  from  the  fury  of  the  Northmen." 


e  S 'W 

""■"■'£f 

l&-  i 

W/.: 

188! 

%>f^~, ,«&'** 

-^Sim 

J*      :    »^v' 

-T^-  ■  *"■ 

.-  ""ST  ...•  '"""*"* 

liL*«i  "' '■'•■'**•     "_i-'V:':-     ' 

^"jiSfc 

V^% 

Viking  Ships. 


Ii8     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

A  Good  Joke.  —  A  story  is  told  of  their  love  of  a  joke. 
They  had  captured  some  Jomsburg  Vikings  whom  they 
were  about  to  kill.  These  captives  were  seated  on  a  log 
with  their  feet  bound  to  it.  One  after  another  was  beheaded 
there  where  he  sat,  without  flinching  or  even  winking,  the 
story  says.  At  last  the  axman  came  to  one  of  them  named 
Sigurd,  who  had  very  long  and  beautiful  hair.  As  his  turn 
came  he  cried  out :  "  I  fear  not  death.  But  let  no  slave 
touch  my  hair,  nor  blood  defile  it."  So  one  of  the  North- 
men stepped  forward  and  held  up  his  hair  till  the  ax  should 
fall.  But  Sigurd  gave  a  sudden  jerk  and  the  ax  fell  not  on 
his  neck  but  on  the  Northman's  wrists,  cutting  off  both  his 
hands.  This  trick  so  delighted  Eric,  the  king's  son,  that  he 
laughed  heartily  and  ordered  all  the  other  Jomsburgers 
to  be  pardoned. 

The  Home  of  the  Northmen.  —  The  heathen  Danes  and 
the  Northmen  lived  about  the  Baltic  in  Denmark  and 
Norway.  They  were  too  far  away  to  have  been  touched 
by  the  civilization  of  Rome.  They  were  cousins  of  the 
Angles  and  Saxons,  though  they  still  clung  to  their  heathen 
gods,  while  their  English  kinsmen  had  advanced  a  very 
long  way  in  Christian  civilization. 

Hard  Life  of  Northmen.  —  The  winters  of  their  northern 
home  were  long  and  severe,  and  the  short  summers  and  the 
barren  soil  drove  them  more  and  more  to  the  sea  for  their 
food.  So  they  came  to  feel  at  home  upon  the  sea,  where 
they  obtained  their  harvest  of  fish  and  plunder  to  help  them 
through  the  long  winters.  Their  growing  population 
forced  some  to  seek  homes  elsewhere,  and  when  they  heard 
of  rich  new  lands  to  the  south,  with  herds  of  cattle,  sheep, 
and  swine,  they  decided  to  go  thither. 

The  Danes  Come  to  Stay.  —  They  found  none  of  the 
little  kingdoms  into  which  England  was  divided  able  to 


ALFRED   THE   GREAT   AND   THE   DANES         119 

hold  them  back.  Our  Saxon  forefathers  had  not  yet  learned 
that  there  is  strength  in  union.  So  the  Danes  ceased  to 
return  home  in  the  autumn.  They  drew  their  ships  upon 
the  shore  of  some  island  just  off  the  English  coast,  fortified 
their  camp,  and  went  into  winter  quarters. 

How  the  Danes  Fortified.  —  The  Danes  understood  the 
value  of  fortified  places.     They  usually  chose   for  their 


A  Fiord  in  Norway. 

camps  places  protected  by  the  bend  of  a  river,  where  their 
ships  could  be  moored.  Then  across  the  bend  in  front  of 
their  camp  they  dug  a  ditch  and  put  up  a  stockade.  Here 
they  were  safe,  for  the  English  did  not  know  how  to  storm 
a  fortified  camp,  nor  had  they  any  machines  or  battering 
rams  to  assist  in  breaking  in.  The  Danes  were  here  joined 
in  the  spring  by  many  more  ships  with  numerous  warriors, 
and  they  again  spread  themselves  over  England  to  plunder. 


120     DAWN  OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY   IN  EUROPE 

The  English  Need  Forts.  — The  Saxons,  as  we  have  learned, 
disliked  walled  towns ;  so  they  had  destroyed  all  the  fortified 
cities  and  camps  of  the  Romans.  Now  when  they  wished 
to  defend  their  country  against  sea  rovers  who  could  swoop 
down  suddenly,  they  needed  forts  in  which  a  few  men  could 
hold  out  against  a  large  number.  But  they  did  not  know 
how  to  fortify  even  their  camps  with  palisades  and  ditches. 
When  they  were  beaten  in  open  battle,  their  army  was 
scattered,  while  the  Danes,  if  worsted,  quickly  retreated 
to  their  stockade  and  were  safe.  The  pirate  Danes  also  had 
good  arms  and  armors,  such  as  battle-axes,  bows  and  arrows, 
spears,  and  shields,  which  they  had  gathered  up  in  their 
many  sea  fights. 

The  Army  of  the  English.  —  The  English  army  was  made 
up  of  two  classes  of  fighting  men.  First  were  the  nobles, 
or  thanes,  who  were  bound  to  join  the  host  as  soon  as  sum- 
moned by  the  king.  They  were  mounted,  well-armed,  and 
carried  coats  of  mail,  helmets,  and  shields.  But  the  thanes 
were  few  in  number.  By  far  the  larger  part  of  the  English 
army  was  made  up  of  the  fyrd,  which  was  composed  of  all 
free  landowners.  They  could  be  summoned  to  war  only 
by  the  folkmoot.  When  called  into  the  king's  service, 
they  came  armed  with  clubs  and  hedge  stakes,  which  could 
do  little  against  the  battle-axes  and  spears  of  the  Danes. 
The  moot  was  always  slow  in  calling  them  out,  and  so  they 
often  came  to  the  scene  after  the  Danes  had  plundered  and 
disappeared. 

Two  Months'  Service.  —  Long  marches  or  long  campaigns 
were  impossible,  because  the  English  had  no  organized 
plan  of  feeding  an  army.  When  their  provisions  gave  out, 
they  must  be  near  home  to  secure  more,  because  each  man 
was  expected  to  feed  himself.  Besides,  the  farmer  had  left 
his  crops  growing,  and  he  wished  to  get  home  to  care  for 


ALFRED   THE   GREAT  AND   THE   DANES  121 

them.  The  fyrd  had  never  been  expected  to  remain  in  the 
field  longer  than  two  months,  but  even  this  was  too  long 
to  hold  the  farmer  when  his  crops  were  in  need  of  care.  So 
the  king  had  a  law  made,  fining  a  man  heavily  for  leaving 
the  service  before  his  time  was  up. 

The  Danes  Always  in  Arms. —When  the  Danes  were 
beaten  they  fell  back  behind  their  stockades  and  waited 
patiently  until  the  two  months  were  up  and  the  English 
host  had  gone  back  to  their  farms.  The  Danes  had  a 
standing  army  —  one  that  remained  in  the  field  from  month 


Ancient  Boat  Found  in  Denmark. 

to  month  and  from  year  to  year.  Moreover  they  were  ex- 
perienced warriors. 

Roads  Poor.  —  Another  reason  why  it  was  so  difficult  to 
check  the  swarming  Danes  was  because  the  English  could 
not  move  their  troops  quickly  from  place  to  place.  There 
were  no  roads,  only  tracks  through  the  forest,  and  the  water- 
ways of  rivers  which  were  useless  without  boats.  The 
English  had  long  given  up  their  sea-going  habits  for  settled 
farm  life  and  had  forgotten  all  about  navigation. 

Boats  and  Horses  of  Danes.  —  The  Danes  had  their 
light  boats  which  could  ply  on  all  the  rivers.  When  they 
must  leave  their  boats-,  they  stole  all- the  horses  in  the  neigh- 


122     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

borhood  and  traveled  quickly  on  horseback.  If  the  Saxons 
chased  them  too  closely,  they  took  to  their  boats  and  soon 
appeared  in  another  part  of  England  with  the  Saxon  army 
far  away. 

Why  the  Danes  Hated  Monasteries.  —  The  Danes  and 
Northmen  still  worshiped  Odin  and  Thor.  They  thought 
that  their  English  cousins  had  abandoned  the  true  Teutonic 
religion  for  a  false  one.  So  the  Danes  eagerly  killed  all 
priests,  monks,  and  nuns  on  whom  they  could  lay  hands. 
They  destroyed  churches  with  joy,  and  were  never  so  happy 
as  when  they  had  plundered  a  monastery  and  given  it  to  the 
flames.  It  was  in  the  monasteries,  also,  that  the  richest 
plunder  was  to  be  found.  Not  only  Canterbury,  but  all 
the  abbeys  near  the  coast,  soon  lay  in  blackened  ruins  with 
the  monks  cruelly  slain. 

Fresh  Hordes  Keep  Coming.  —  The  English  could  not 
help  being  discouraged,  for  fresh  hordes  kept  swarming  up 
the  rivers.  They  came  all  armed  to  the  teeth,  in  fleets  of  a 
hundred  vessels  or  more.  There  seemed  to  be  no  limit  to 
the  supply  of  these  wolves  from  the  north.  They  dashed 
from  place  to  place  on  swift  horses,  so  quickly  that  the 
English  could  not  corner  them.  The  rich  cities,  churches, 
and  monasteries  farther  inland  were  the  objects  of  special 
raids. 

Danes  Victorious.  —  They  seized  more  land  and  built 
more  forts.  Sometimes  they  were  checked,  but  they  never 
gave  up  a  foot  of  the  territory  that  they  had  taken.  One 
little  kingdom  after  another  fell  into  their  hands,  for  the 
English  did  not  know  yet  how  to  unite  their  strength. 

The  Outlook  was  Dark.  —  The  Danes  had  already  seized 
upon  every  kingdom  of  England  except  Wessex ;  they  had 
destroyed  everything.  Not  only  were  the  monasteries 
and  churches  looted  and  given  to  the  flames,  but  schools 


ALFRED   THE   GREAT   AND   THE   DANES  123 

and  books  and  learning  were  gone.  All  improved  tools  and 
houses  and  barns  were  in  ashes ;  flocks  of  sheep  and  herds 
of  cattle  and  hogs  had  been  driven  off  and  butchered  by  the 
hungry  Danes ;  even  the  people  had  disappeared  from  en- 
tire districts,  leaving  ruins  and  neglected  fields  behind. 
Nothing  remained  but  the  memory  of  peace  and  a  bitter 


The  Wise  Men  or  Alfred's  Time. 

hatred  for  the  cruel  Danes.  Still  a  new  king  boldly  took 
up  his  battle-ax  to  defend  Wessex. 

Alfred  Becomes  King.  —  Alfred  had  three  older  brothers, 
so  there  seemed  to  be  little  chance  that  he  would  ever  be- 
come king.  But  each  brother,  in  turn,  fell  in  battle  with  the 
Danes,  after  reigning  only  a  few  years.  It  was  in  871, 
when  his  last  brother  was  slain,  that  Alfred,  at  the  early  age 
of  twenty-two,  was  called  to  rule  his  West  Saxons. 

King  Alfred's  Boyhood.  —  Alfred's  mother  died,  we  are 
told,  when  he  was  still  a  child.  When  he  was  four  years 
old,  his  father,  the  king,  sent  him  to  Rome  with  Bishop 
Swinthun,  who  carried  many  costly  gifts  to  the  pope.  Here 
Alfred  was  anointed  by  the  pope  and  adopted  as  his  spiritual 


124     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

son.  Very  little  is  known  of  Alfred's  boyhood.  It  was 
customary  in  those  days  for  the  king's  son  to  be  taken  from 
women  and  nurses  as  soon  as  he  was  strong  enough  to 
practice  riding  and  the  use  of  arms,  and  to  be  placed  in  the 
court  or  the  house  of  some  noble,  where  he  was  daily  taught 
in  all  kinds  of  manly  sports,  such  as  hunting  and  throwing. 
Above  all  things  he  was  trained  to  be  a  soldier,  for  fighting 
was  the  first  duty  of  every  man. 

Alfred  and  the  Danes.  —  Wherever  he  was  brought  up, 
Alfred  must  have  heard  every  day  the  clash  and  clang  of 
arms.  All  through  his  boyhood,  stories  were  told  of  the 
coming  of  more  Danes  in  their  multitude  of  ships,  of  victories 
and  defeats.  Alfred  did  not  know  that  he  was  one  day  to 
conquer  these  very  Danes  and  to  make  England  one  kingdom 
with  one  law,  one  religion,  and  one  language.  As  he  grew 
he  was  permitted  to  follow  the  king's  army  and,  perhaps, 
to  watch  the  fight  from  a  distance. 

Alfred's  Love  of  Learning.  —  In  the  long  winter  evenings, 
Alfred  sat  with  the  king  and  thanes,  the  queen  and  ladies, 
around  the  fire  in  the  great  hall,  and  listened  to  the  min- 
strels chanting  and  reciting  verses  about  old  heroes,  wars, 
and  legends,  while  they  waited  for  spring  and  the  return  of 
the  Danes.  So  Alfred  grew  to  love  learning  and  poetry  and 
books.  He  learned  much  from  the  scholars  and  monks  of 
the  monasteries,  from  priests  and  from  noble  ladies  in  the 
nunneries.  He  understood  Latin  and  could  turn  Latin  books 
into  Anglo-Saxon.  Even  after  the  Danes  had  overthrown 
and  burned  the  monasteries,  Alfred's  love  of  learning  clung 
to  him  through  all  the  stormy  years  of  war  and  destruction. 

The  Danes  in  Wessex.  —  The  boy  was  at  last  old  enough 
to  join  the  king's  army  and  to  fight  in  a  coat  of  mail.  He 
could  now,  no  doubt,  wield  the  great  battle-ax  as  deftly  as 
his  brother,  the  king ;  when,  suddenly,  he  was  himself  called 


ALFRED   THE   GREAT  AND   THE   DANES  125 

upon  to  wear  the  crown  of  Wessex.  Having  taken  all  the 
other  kingdoms,  the  Danes  now  came  upon  Wessex  with  a 
large  army,  not  only  of  their  own  men,  but  of  Northmen,  also. 
They  swept  up  the  Thames,  having  on  either  bank  troops 
mounted  and  on  foot.  In  one  year  the  young  king  Alfred 
fought  nine  pitched  battles  with  them.  Sometimes  he  was 
defeated,  and  sometimes  he  was  victorious ;  but  even  a  vic- 
tory did  little  good,  for  the  swift  Danes  quickly  appeared 
in  another  part  of  the  country. 
At  last  in  order  to  gain  time  to 
strengthen  his  army,  Alfred  bought 
off  the  enemy,  and  they  returned 
to  London,  outside  of  Wessex. 

Fighting  the  Danes  at  Sea.  — 
Three  years  later  Alfred  again  took 
the  field  against  the  Danes.  He 
knew  that  in  order  to  beat  them, 
he  must  meet  them  on  the  sea ;  so 
he  built  a  small  fleet,  —  the  first  KmQ  Alfred 

English   warships.     Out  of  seven 

Danish  vessels,  he  captured  one  and  put  the  rest  to  flight. 
So  Alfred  has  been  called  "  The  Father  of  the  English  Navy." 

Alfred  is  Beaten  on  Land.  —  Alfred  was  not  so  successful 
on  land.  He  could  not  drive  the  swarms  of  Danes  out  of 
the  country,  but  neither  could  they  overrun  his  kingdom,  as 
they  had  all  the  other  kingdoms  of  England.  The  Danes 
seemed  to  have  met  their  match.  The  war  went  on  till 
winter  and  impassable  roads  put  an  end  to  the  fighting. 

Danes  at  Last  Victorious.  —  In  the  depths  of  winter 
when  Alfred's  army  had  scattered  to  their  homes,  the  Danes 
suddenly  broke  up  their  winter  quarters  and  quickly 
spread  over  the  country.  Thus  Wessex  was  taken  by  sur- 
prise, and  the  land  was  left  desolate  like  the  other  kingdoms. 


126     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

Farms  were  ravaged,  villages  and  towns  were  ransacked  and 
burned,  churches  and  monasteries  lay  in  blackened  ruins. 
Alfred's  subjects  seemed  to  be  discouraged  and  worn  out  with 
their  long  marches  back  and  forth,  in  trying  to  corner  the 


Weapons  of  the  Danes. 


fleeing  Danes.  Alfred  could  do  nothing  more  to  check  the 
enemy.  To  him  everything  seemed  as  black  as  night ;  so  he 
disappeared  and  let  the  Danes  take  his  kingdom. 

King  Alfred  an  Outlaw.  —  But  Alfred  alone  of  all  the 
Saxons  had  not  lost  hope.  He  settled  down  with  a  band  of 
followers  upon  a  little  island  in  the  river  Thames.     Here, 


ALFRED   THE   GREAT  AND   THE   DANES  127 

like  an  outlaw,  he  remained  in  hiding  in  the  woods.  When- 
ever he  saw  a  good  chance,  he  sallied  out  and  struck  the 
Danes  unexpectedly,  doing  them  all  the  harm  he  could. 
Then  he  stole  back  to  his  hiding  place.  Here  he  kept  think- 
ing how  he  might  drive  them  out  altogether.  He  planned  a 
great  fleet,  he  learned  how  to  build  forts  like  those  of  the 
Danes,  and  he  made  better  arms  for  his  men. 

Alfred's  Hour  has  Come.  — At  last  Alfred  felt  that  his 
Saxons  were  ready  to  fight  in  earnest.  So  when  the  leaves 
were  budding  in  the  forest  in  the  spring,  he  stole  from  his 
island  and  called  his  men  together.  Suddenly  his  army 
dashed  from  the  dense  forest  and  marched  straight  upon  the 
Danes  at  Chippenham.  The  Danes  were  amazed  at  this 
great  army  which  seemed  to  have  sprung  up  out  of  the  earth, 
but  they  came  out  to  meet  Alfred's  host. 

Battle  of  Chippenham.  —  The  English  army  gripped  their 
weapons  firmly  as  they  remembered  their  burned  homes  and 
their  children  carried  over  the  sea  as  slaves.  Alfred  ar- 
ranged his  army  in  the  shape  of  a  wedge,  and  they  rushed  into 
battle  with  a  wild  shout.  The  fight  was  soon  over,  and  the 
Danes  were  fleeing  to  their  fort.  Alfred  rode  after  them, 
and  his  army  sat  down  to  besiege  their  camp.  For  two 
weeks  he  kept  them  penned  up,  and  they  begged  for  peace. 
Alfred  knew  that  he  could  not  drive  all  of  the  Danes  out, of 
England,  for  they  were  too  numerous  and  had  too  many  forts. 
So  he  made  terms  with  them. 

The  Treaty  of  Wedmore.  —  The  Danes  gave  men  to 
Alfred  as  hostages,  or  pledges  that  they  would  keep  their 
word.  They  swore  mighty  oaths  that  they  would  quit 
ravaging  Wessex,  and  their  king  Guthrum  promised  to 
become  a  Christian  and  to  be  baptized.  This  he  did  with 
many  of  his  great  warriors. .., Alfred  and  .Guthxum  now 
agreed  to  make  the  Thames  River  a  boundary  between  their 


128     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

two  kingdoms.  So  the  Danes  kept  northeastern  England, 
while  Alfred  kept  all  the  south  and  west,  which  was  all  of 
Wessex  and  a  great  deal  more.  Thus  "■  Wessex  was  saved ; 
and  in  saving  Wessex,  Alfred  had  saved  England  "  from  be- 
coming a  heathen  land  again. 

Alfred  Repairing  the  Ruin.  —  Alfred  now  set  about  to 
repair  the  ruin  of  his  kingdom  and  to  get  ready  for  another 
war  with  the  Danes,  because  he  was  unwilling  to  leave  the 
city  of  London  in  their  hands.  He  realized  that  he  must 
have  a  larger  standing  army,  forts,  ships,  and  better  arms,  if 
he  were  to  hold  his  own  against  these  warriors. 

A  Larger  Army.  —  So  Alfred  divided  the  lands  of  his 
kingdom  into  small  military  districts  of  a  few  hundred  acres 
each.  Each  district  was  to  send  an  armed  man  at  the  king's 
summons  and  to  provide  him  with  food  and  pay.  This 
gave  Alfred  a  respectable  standing  army. 

The  fyrd  was  divided  into  two  parts.  One  part  took  the 
field,  while  the  other  looked  after  the  crops  and  protected 
the  homes  and  the  townships.  This  enabled  Alfred  to  under- 
take a  longer  campaign.  He  also  built  forts  and  encouraged 
the  townsmen  to  fortify  their  towns  with  ditches  and  pali- 
sades ;  he  built  a  fleet  of  ships  larger  and  swifter  than  those 
of  the  Danes ;  and  he  continued  to  improve  the  weapons 
of  his  soldiers.  So  when  war  came  again  in  886,  King  Alfred 
was  ready. 

The  Danes  Meet  Their  Match.  — Alfred  soon  took  London 
from  the  Danes  and  made  it  his  capital.  He  forced  them 
to  give  him  much  more  territory.  With  London  and  the 
Thames  valley  in  his  hands,  Alfred  fortified  and  closed  this 
waterway  to  the  Danes.  Since  the  invaders  had  already 
built  homes  in  their  new  lands,  they  could  not  fight  so  well, 
for  they  must  now  defend  their  own  homes  before  they  could 
burn  and  destroy  those  of  the  Saxons.     So  they  were  beaten, 


Greenwich     0 


ENSRAVEO  BY  BORHAY-fc  CO..  ,«. 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT  AND  THE  DANES    129 

and  Alfred  extended  his  rule  over  more  and  more  of  their 
lands. 

King  of  England.  —  So  great  was  the  respect  and  ad- 
miration for  the  wonderful  Alfred  among  all  the  Angles, 
Saxons,  and  Jutes  that  they  turned  to  him  as  their  hope  and 
their  deliverer  from  slavery  to  the  Danes.  The  jealousies 
among  the  people,  who  had  before  formed  little  kingdoms, 
now  disappeared,  and  in  its  place  was  a  growing  pride  in 
the  greatness  of  England,  a  feeling  of  oneness  and  union. 

The  Danes  Become  English.  —  The  Danish  newcomers 
settled  down  quietly,  after  a  time,  and  were  tamed.  They 
readily  mixed  and  intermarried  with  the  English;  they 
received  the  English  religion  and  the  Anglo-Saxon  speech; 
and  after  a  few  generations,  the  Danes  could  not  be  distin- 
guished from  the  Anglo-Saxons.  One  great  reason  for  this 
lay  in  their  being  close  kin  to  the  Saxons  and  having  customs 
and  a  language  very  similar  to  them.  The  Danes  brought 
many  good  qualities  to  enrich  the  English  stock  —  greater 
daring,  deeper  love  of  personal  freedom,  better  seamanship, 
and  a  warmer  love  of  the  sea,  besides  a  keener  spirit  of 
trade  and  commerce,  in  which  England  excels  to  this 
day. 

Alfred's  Work  in  Time  of  Peace.  —  Alfred  now  spent  his 
years  of  peace  in  building  up  and  uniting  the  greater  part 
of  England.  He  encouraged  trade  and  travel,  because  these 
would  help  to  do  away  with  the  ignorance  and  prejudice 
of  his  people.  He  did  all  that  he  could  to  make  England 
safe  for  foreign  merchants.  He  raised  to  the  order  of  gentle- 
man every  merchant  who  had  made  three  voyages  to  the 
Mediterranean  at  his  own  expense.  Alfred  sent  ambassadors 
to  Rome,  to  France,  to  the  East,  and  even  to  India.  He 
also  encouraged  the  work  of  craftsmen,  goldsmiths,  and 
jewelers,  for  in  these  crafts  the  Saxons  were  very  skillful. 


130     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 


A  Viking  Ship  and  an  Ocean  Liner. 
(Columbian  Exposition.) 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT  AND  THE  DANES    131 

Character  of  Alfred  the  Great.  —  Alfred  is  said  to  have 
been  the  most  perfect  character  in  history.  No  other  man 
on  record  has  united  so  many  great  qualities.  He  was  a 
good  Christian  man  in  an  age  when  so  many  were  wicked. 
Like  Washington  he  was  a  great  warrior,  never  cast  down 
in  defeat  nor  cruel  to  the  enemy  when  he  had  conquered. 
He  was  unselfish,  for  he  lived  only  to  serve  his  people.  In 
addition  to  all  this,  Alfred  was  a  great  statesman,  improving 
the  army,  building  up  a  navy,  erecting  walls  about  the 
cities,  and  making  good  laws  for  his  people.  Alfred 
gathered  together  all  the  good  laws  wherever  he  could  find 
them  and  wrote  them  down  and  caused  them  to  be  obeyed 
instead  of  the  cruel  and  barbarous  customs  of  the  Saxons. 
In  this  way  he  greatly  improved  the  laws  of  his  kingdom. 

Alfred's  Court  and  Judges.  —  Alfred  also  saw  to  it  that 
everybody,  rich  and  poor,  obeyed  the  laws.  There  arose 
during  Alfred's  reign  many  powerful  nobles,  who  would 
not  obey  the  orders  of  the  shire  moot  if  they  did  not  choose 
to  do  so.  Alfred  made  all  the  nobles  bring  their  cases  to 
him,  and  he  saw  to  it  that  the  poor  man  got  justice  and  that 
the  rich  nobles  obeyed  his  decisions  like  other  people.  He 
heard  cases  day  and  night.  Of  course  these  nobles  hated 
Alfred  heartily  because  he  made  them  do  right.  Alfred 
once  said  that  to  be  a  good  king  one  had  to  do  many  un- 
pleasant things  and  make  many  enemies. 

Encourages  Learning.  —  Alfred  encouraged  great  scholars 
and  men  of  learning  to  come  over  from  the  continent.  He 
entertained  them  in  his  court ;  he  raised  them  to  be  bishops 
and  abbots ;  he  consulted  with  them  and  made  them  his 
personal  friends.  Alfred  was  himself  a  great  scholar,  in 
an  age  when  nearly  everybody  was  ignorant.  He  built 
schools  and  monasteries,  encouraged  learning,  and  wrote 
books  in  Anglo-Saxon  so  that  his  people  could  read  them. 


132     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

Everything  Alfred  did  was  done,  not  for  his  own  glory,  but 
for  the  good  of  his  people. 

King  Alfred's  Death.  —  After  ruling  for  nearly  thirty 
years,  King  Alfred  died  in  901.  In  his  will  he  left  money 
to  all  his  family  and  friends  and  gave  his  slaves  their  free- 
dom. In  his  last  days  he  wrote :  "  This  I  will  say,  that  I 
have  tried  to  live  worthily  while  I  lived,  and  after  my  life 
to  leave  to  the  men  that  come  after  me  a  remembering  of 
me  in  good  works."  No  ruler  ever  set  so  good  an  example 
of  what  a  king  should  be,  and  the  English  people  have  never 
ceased  to  love  him  and  to  call  him  Alfred  the  Great. 

England  for  the  English.  —  After  Alfred's  death,  for 
more  than  a  hundred  years,  England  was  ruled  over  by 
strong  Wessex  kings.  They  bent  all  their  powers  to  finish 
what  Alfred  had  begun  —  to  unite  and  strengthen  the 
English  people.  Thus,  the  whole  country  became  so 
thoroughly  English,  with  one  language,  one  system  of 
laws,  and  one  religion,  that  it  has  ever  remained  so.  Eng- 
land was  later  conquered  by  fresh  hordes  of  Danes  under 
Canute.  It  was  still  later  conquered  and  ruled  over  by  the 
Normans  under  William  the  Conqueror,  with  his  French- 
speaking  army  and  nobles.  However,  the  English  lan- 
guage, laws,  and  customs  were  so  well  grounded  that  they 
could  not  be  rooted  out  by  the  foreign  king  or  a  foreign 
nobility.  For  this  we  are  indebted  mainly  to  the  strong 
kings  of  Wessex,  of  whom  Alfred  was  the  greatest. 

QUESTIONS 

Danes  and  Northmen  —  1.  What  improvement  was  there  in 
England?  2.  Why  was  there  less  fighting ?  3.  Describe  the  home 
of  the  Danes  and  Northmen.  4.  Where  was  it?  5.  What  were  the 
characteristics  of  these  men  ?  6.  Why  did  they  rove?  7.  Where? 
8.    Why  do  they  settle  in  Britain  ?     9.    Whom  do  they  find  there  ? 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT  AND  THE  DANES    133 

10.  Why  are  the  Danes  able  to  settle  there?  11.  Describe  the 
Danish  fortifications. 

English  Army  — 12.  What  divisions  of  people  were  there  in 
England  at  this  time  ?  13.  What  two  classes  of  soldiers  were  there  ? 
14.  How  were  the  soldiers  called  together?  15.  How  were  they 
armed?  16.  What  supplies  did  they  get ?  17.  Describe  the  cam- 
paign. 18.  What  weakness  was  there  in  this  army?  19.  Compare 
the  English  and  Danish  armies.  20.  What  was  the  feeling  of  the 
army  toward  the  monasteries?  21.  What  were  the  results  of  the 
Danish  invasions  ? 

King  Alfred  —  22.  Describe  his  boyhood.  23.  Discuss  the 
treaty  of  Wedmore.  24.  How  was  Alfred's  army  different  from  the 
old  one?  25.  How  did  Alfred  prepare  to  meet  the  Danes? 
26.  What  territory  did  he  seize  ?  27.  Why?  28.  Wherein  lay  King 
Alfred's  strength?  29.  Why  was  he  able  to  defeat  the  Danes? 
30.  Results.  31.  What  good  qualities  did  the  Danes  add  to  the  Eng- 
lish nation?  32.  Why  was  it  easy  for  them  to  settle  in  England? 
S3.  What  do  you  think  of  King  Alfred  as  a  man?  34.  What  did 
he  do  for  England?     35.   What  were  the  results  of  Alfred's  rule? 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE   BEGINNING    OF   FRANCE 

The  Franks.  —  The  most  important  German  tribe  that 
settled  in  Gaul  was  the  Franks,  who,  after  a  time,  gave 
their  name  to  that  country.  There  were  several  tribes  of 
them.  The  chief  who  made  them  strong  and  great  was 
Clovis.  He  was  only  fifteen  years  old  when  he  became  king 
of  his  tribe  of  Franks,  but  he  was  an  unusually  brave  youth 
and  soon  proved  to  be  a  great  warrior.  He  early  began  to 
conquer  the  tribes  about  him  and  to  add  their  lands  to  his 
own.  Some  of  the  other  chiefs  Clovis  drove  away,  and  some 
he  murdered. 

Franks  Become  Christians.  —  The  Franks  had  been 
pagans  until  Clovis  married  a  German  lady,  Clotilda,  who 
had  become  a  Christian ;  and  this  paved  the  way  for  all  of 
the  Franks  to  accept  Christianity.  Clovis  had  waged  war 
on  the  Burgundians,  conquered  them,  and  made  them 
receive  him  as  their  king.  He  then  moved  against  the  Ale- 
mans,  another  German  tribe.  This  time  he  almost  met  his 
match.  In  the  midst  of  the  battle,  Clovis  saw  his  lines 
giving  way,  and  the  battle  seemed  almost  lost.  Then  he 
called  upon  the  God  of  his  wife,  vowing  that  if  Christ  would 
help  him  to  victory,  he  would  be  baptized  and  become  a 
Christian.  In  Clovis's  army  were  many  Christian  Gauls, 
and  when  they  heard  of  his  vow,  their  enthusiasm  and  fierce 
fighting  at  last  defeated  the  Alemans.  So  Clovis  kept  his 
word,  and  on  Christmas  day  was  baptized,  together  with 
three  thousand  of  his  warriors,  who  thus  became  members 
of  the  Catholic  Church. 

134 


THE   BEGINNING   OF   FRANCE  135 

Clovis  and  the  Pope  join  Hands.  —  This  act  of  Clovis 
had  a  great  influence  on  France,  for  the  Christian  Gauls 
now  gladly  accepted  him  as  their  king,  and  joined  his  army. 
The  pope  of  Rome  also  was  greatly  pleased,  for  he  and 
Clovis  could  join  hands  against  the  enemies  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Becoming  a  Christian  had  made  very 
little  change  in  the  conduct  of  Clovis,  but  he  was  glad  to 
have  the  help  of  the  Christian  Gauls  and  of  the  Church. 
So  he  became  its  champion.  He  made  war  on  the  West 
Goths  and  took  a  large  territory  from  them,  and  then  turned 
against  the  other  tribes  of  Franks,  whose  rulers  were  his 
friends.  Clovis  had  these  secretly  murdered  or  killed  in 
different  ways,  until  he  was  ruler  of  nearly  all  the  territory 
of  what  is  now  'France.  The  Gauls  and  Franks  were 
uniting  to  form  the  French  people.  Paris  became  the 
capital  city.  As  Clovis's  kingdom  became  larger  and  larger 
his  power  grew,  and  the  people  had  less  to  say  as  to  how  they 
should  be  ruled.  France  was  in  a  fair  way  to  become  a 
strong  kingdom,  when  Clovis  died  in  511.  The  country 
was  then  divided  among  his  four  sons. 

Centuries  of  Darkness.  —  There  followed  a  long,  long 
time  when  France  was  full  of  darkness,  of  wickedness,  and 
of  crime;  when  there  was  no  safety  anywhere  from 
robbery  and  righting.  And  then  at  last  there  appeared  at 
Paris  another  strong  ruler,  Charlemagne,  or  Charles  the 
Great. 

Charles  Subdued  the  Saxons.  —  Charles  was  also  a 
member  of  the  Roman  Church  and  in  high  favor  with  the 
pope.  He  wished  to  unite  all  the  German  tribes  in  one 
great  Christian  state.  If  he  were  to  succeed  in  this  plan, 
he  must  first  conquer  the  Saxon  tribes  who  lived  along  the 
Rhine.  These  pagan  Saxons  were  great  warriors,  and 
Charles  found  the  task  of  subduing  them  a  hard  one  indeed. 


136    DAWN   OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 


Every  time  he  defeated  the  Saxons,  they  rose  up  again. 
Nine  times  Charles  put  them  down,  the  last  time  with 
great  cruelty,  for  he  beheaded  four  thousand  Saxon  warriors 
in  one  day.     Then  he  declared  that  every  living  Saxon  who 

refused  to  be  baptized  as  a 
Christian,  or  who  ate  flesh 
during  Lent,  should  lose  his 
head.  So  the  Saxons  on  the 
Rhine  were  finally  con- 
quered, and  their  lands  added 
to  the  empire  of  Charles. 

A  Strong  Ruler. — 
Charles  succeeded  in  build- 
ing up  a  very  great  Christian 
empire.  It  included  all  of 
what  is  now  France,  Belgium, 
Netherlands,  and  nearly  all 
of  Germany.  Charles  ruled 
it  well,  for  he  was  a  strong 
king.  He  had  great  armies, 
as  well  as  fleets  of  warships. 
Robbers  and  pirates  were 
driven  away,  and  the  rude 
Germans  had  a  brief  period 
of  peace  in  which  they  might 
take  a  few  steps  toward  civ- 
ilized living. 

"  Emperor  of  the  Romans."  —  In  the  year  800,  Charles 
went  to  Rome  to  settle  a  dispute  between  Pope  Leo  III 
and  his  enemies.  The  trouble  was  settled,  and  the  pope 
held  a  solemn  service  in  St.  Peter's  on  Christmas  day  to 
give  thanks,  and  to  celebrate  the  peace  that  Charles  had 
obtained  for  him.     As   Charles   the   Great  was  kneeling 


Charlemagne. 


THE   BEGINNING   OF   FRANCE  137 

before  the  altar  during  the  service,  the  pope  came  to  him, 
and,  to  his  surprise,  set  a  crown  upon  his  head  and  saluted 
him  as  "  Emperor  of  the  Romans,"  amid  the  applause  of 
the  people. 

Encourages  Learning.  —  Charles  not  only  kept  order 
in  his  great  empire,  but  he  began  to  educate  the  people. 
He  urged  the  priests  and  bishops  to  establish  schools  in 
connection  with  their  churches,  and  to  teach  the  boys  to 
read,  for  those  were  times  of  great  ignorance  among  the 
people.  Charles  himself  built  up  a  great  school  in  his 
palace  to  teach  the  sons  of  noblemen.  He  gathered  to- 
gether the  greatest  scholars  and  teachers  from  all  countries. 

Amusements.  —  One  sport  of  Charles  the  Great's  time 
was  tracking  and  driving  animals  of  all  sorts  into  pens  made 
of  cloths  or  nets,  where  the  hunters  killed  them  by  the 
thousand.  It  was  said  of  Charlemagne,  that  though  usually 
at  war,  he  never  missed  a  chance  to  hunt.  He  enjoyed 
hunting  so  much  that  he  rested  himself  by  galloping  through 
the  forest.  On  these  occasions  he  was  followed  by  hunts- 
men and  attendants  of  his  household,  and  by  his  wife  and 
daughters,  all  mounted  on  magnificent  horses.  All  the 
members  of  the  party  vied  with  one  another  in  attacking 
the  fiercest  animals.  "  They  often  used  a  stuffed  cow  as  a 
blind  while  approaching  wild  fowl.  We  find  sportsmen 
shooting  with  bow  and  arrows  at  bears,  wild  boars,  and  stags. 
Their  arrows  had  sharp  iron  points.  When  hunting  rabbits, 
an  arrow  with  a  big  blunt  end  was  used  in  order  to  stun  the 
animal  without  piercing  his  body.  Sometimes  a  sportsman 
with  his  crossbow  was  seated  in  a  carriage  all  covered  with 
boughs,  so  as  to  approach  his  prey  without  alarming  it  any 
more  than  a  swinging  branch  would  do." 

Another  Period  of  Darkness.  —  Charles  the  Great  died 
in  814,  and  the  whole  empire  went  to  pieces  again,  for 


.138    DAWN   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

the  Germans  were  not  yet  able  to  settle  down  to  live  lives 
of  peace  and  honest  labor.  As  soon  as  the  strong  arm  of 
Charles  the  Great  was  no  longer  felt,  robbers  and  brigands 
swarmed  over  the  land  to  kill,  torture,  and  plunder  as  they 
pleased.  It  took  a  strong  man  to  rule  those  rough  people, 
and  such  a  man  was  not  to  be  found.  "  The  ninth  century 
was  an  age  of  indescribable  horror  and  misery  in  France." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  had  the  Franks  settled?  2.  Who  was  their  leader? 
3.  Why  had  Clovis  so  much  power  ?  4.  What  did  he  do  for  France? 
5.  In  what  condition  was  France  after  his  death?  6.  Who  was 
Charlemagne?  7.  What  was  his  ambition?  8.  Over  how  great  a 
kingdom  did  he  rule  ?  9.  What  did  he  accomplish  ?  10.  Why  was 
his  empire  so  easily  destroyed?  11.  Why  and  where  were  the 
Northmen  plundering  ?     12.   What  were  the  results  ? 


CHAPTER  X 
FEUDALISM 

The  Northmen  on  the  Continent.  —  At  the  time  when 
England  was  suffering  from  the  raids  of  the  Northmen, 
their  fleets  were  also  plundering  the  coasts  and  river  cities 
of  France,  Spain,  and  Germany.  Everywhere  these  sea 
wolves  found  the  government  too  weak  to  resist  them,  and 
everywhere  they  wrought  dreadful  havoc.  The  people  of 
France  suffered  severely.  The  Northmen  not  only  ravaged 
the  country  districts,  but  sacked  scores  of  great  cities,  among 
them  Paris.  The  rich  plunder  that  they  sought  was  found 
mainly  in  churches  and  in  monasteries.  These  they  robbed 
and  burned  with  delight,  while  they  mocked  and  scoffed 
at  the  Christian  religion.  It  is  said  that  they  even  stabled 
their  horses  in  the  fine  cathedral  near  the  tomb  of  Charles 
the  Great. 

The  Fighter  is  King.  —  Since  all  government  was  gone, 
and  no  power  whatever  was  left  to  protect  the  people  from 
the  continual  plundering  of  the  Northmen,  each  community 
was  forced  to  look  out  for  itself.  There  was  usually  found 
in  each  neighborhood  one  man  who  was  stronger  than  the 
others.  Perhaps  it  was  because  of  his  riches  or  his  influence 
with  men,  but  more  likely  it  was  because  of  his  ability  to 
fight.  So  he  was  made  leader,  and  all  the  weaker  men  with 
their  families  looked  to  him  for  protection. 

Warding  off  the  Northmen.  —  Each  of  these  fighting 
chieftains  planted  himself  upon  some  strong  position  in  his 
domain  —  a  ford,  a  pass  into  a  valley,  or  a  hilltop,  where  he 

139 


140    DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

built  a  strong  castle.  Here  he  stood  with  his  troop,  arms  in 
hand  by  day  and  sleeping  upon  them  at  night,  to  hold  the  rob- 
bers at  bay.  In  those  dark  days,  kings,  nobles,  and  knights, 
in  order  to  be  ready  at  all  hours,  kept  their  horses  in  the  same 
rooms  in  which  they  themselves  slept  with  their  families. 
Their  beds  were  piles  of  leaves  or  straw  upon  the  floor  of  the 


An  Old  Castle. 

hall,  and  their  spurs  were  seldom  taken  off  when  they  went 
to  sleep. 

Safety  for  the  Peasant.  —  The  neighborhood  was  no 
longer  a  prey  to  the  wicked  Northmen.  The  peasant 
enjoyed  protection.  He  did  not  live  in  constant  fear  of 
being  cut  down  by  the  battle-ax  or  led  away  captive  with 
his  family  as  slaves.  He  plowed  and  sowed  crops,  feeling 
sure  that  he  would  reap  a  harvest,  unharmed.  In  case  of 
danger,  he  knew  a  safe  place  for  his  family,  his  cattle,  and 
grain,  under  the  shelter  of  the  castle  on  the  distant  hilltop. 
People  lived  —  were  glad  to  live  —  under  the  iron-gloved 


FEUDALISM  141 

hand  of  a  noble,  even  if  he  did  sometimes  use  them  roughly. 
This  was  much  to  be  preferred  to  falling  into  the  hands  of  the 
savage  Northmen.  "  Not  to  be  killed,  and  to  have  a  good 
sheepskin  coat  in  winter,  was  for  many  people  of  the  tenth 
century  the  height  of  felicity." 

Agreement  between  Noble  and  Farmer.  —  The  chieftain 
or  noble  and  the  small  landowners  in  the  country  around 
came  to  an  agreement.  They  gave  their  lands  up  to  him 
and  received  back  only  the  use  of  them,  while,  the  noble 
was  to  afford  them  protection.  In  order  to  do  this  he  must 
keep  up  his  troop  of  ready  fighters.  The  peasants,  in  re- 
turn for  this  protection,  cultivated  their  lord's  land,  did  his 
work,  paid  him  dues  for  house  rent,  for  every  head  of  cattle 
they  raised,  and  for  turning  over  their  land  to  their  children. 
They  paid  these  dues  in  stock,  grain,  poultry,  and  the  like, 
for  there  was  very  little  money  in  those  days. 

Taking  Toll.  —  Moreover  the  noble  alone  had  wealth 
enough  to  construct  a  mill,  an  oven,  or  a  wine  press ;  to 
build  a  bridge,  or  to  maintain  a  ferry ;  and  in  order  to  be 
paid  for  his  trouble,  he  taxed  all  the  people  who  used  them. 
The  time  came  when  the  "  vassals  could  not  take  their  corn 
to  any  other  than  their  lord's  mill,  their  bread  to  any  other 
than  the  lord's  oven,  or  their  grapes  to  any  other  than  the 
lord's  wine  press  " ;  and  they  must  pay  whatever  toll  the 
lord  demanded.  There  was  nothing  to  prevent  the  noble 
from  taking  half  the  farmer's  corn  as  toll  for  grinding  the 
other  half.  So  a  greedy  noble  sometimes  "  ground  the 
people's  faces  while  he  ground  their  corn." 

Another  Kind  of  Tax.  —  The  vassals  had  also  to  pay,  or 
to  provide,  certain  aids  to  their  lord.  They  were  expected 
to  help  buy  his  freedom  if  he  were  taken  prisoner,  to  help 
pay  the  expense  of  knighting  the  lord's  eldest  son,  and  of  the 
marriage  of  his  eldest  daughter.     Then,   too,   they  must 


142    DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

entertain  their  lord  and  his  followers  when  he  came  into 
their  midst.  Some  vassals  gave  such  scanty  fare  that  it 
was  often  written  down  just  what  food  and  drink  they  must 
provide  for  their  lord  on  these  visits. 

Receiving  a  Fief.  —  When  the  lord  gave  to  his  vassal  a 
section  of  land,  which  they  called  a  fief,  there  were  certain 
ceremonies  to  be  performed.     First,  the  vassal,  to  show 


Tickell  Castle. 

devotion  to  his  lord,  uncovered  his  head,  unbuckled  his 
belt,  and  put  aside  his  sword  and  spurs ;  he  then  knelt  and 
placed  his  hands  between  those  of  his  lord  and  promised 
to  be  his  man  thenceforth,  to  serve  him  loyally  with  life 
and  limb,  in  return  for  the  lands  that  he  was  about  to 
receive.  Then  he  swore  a  solemn  oath  to  be  true  to  his 
lord.  Lastly  the  lord  took  the  man  to  the  land  and  gave 
it  into  his  possession,  or  if  the  land  was  too  far  away,  the 
lord  gave  the  vassal  a  piece  of  turf,  a  stone,  or  a  branch,  as 
a  symbol  of  the  land. 

Each  Lord  a  King.  —  The  small  landowners  ceased  to 


FEUDALISM 


M3 


144    DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

own  farms  and  became  vassals  to  a  neighboring  lord  or 
noble.  The  whole  country  was  thus  divided  into  these 
petty  little  fiefs  or  states;  castles  crowned  the  hilltops; 
and  instead  of  one  strong  central  government,  it  was  said 
that  there  were  ten  thousand  in  France  alone.  Each  lord 
was  practically  independent  of  the  king,  for  he  made  his 
own  laws  and  compelled  obedience  to  them ;  he  laid  and 
collected  his  own  taxes,  coined  his  own  money,  when  he  had 
any,  and  held  court  to  try  lawbreakers.  The  people  of 
these  petty  states  often  became  proud  of  their  lord  and  his 
family.  They  repeated  with  pride  his  great  feats  of  arms, 
and  they  cheered  him  as  he  passed  by  with  his  knights. 

The  Idea  of  King  Not  Forgotten.  —  This  feudal  gov- 
ernment grew  up  through  the  Dark  Ages.  Feudal  lords 
sometimes  pieced  together  large  districts.  Some  of  this 
they  received  from  other  nobles  or  from  the  king,  and  in 
this  way,  lords  became  vassals  of  those  above  them.  All  the 
land  was  supposed  to  have  belonged  at  first  to  the  king. 
He  gave  it  out  to  his  vassals,  the  nobles,  in  large  tracts, 
and  they  granted  it  in  smaller  fields  to  their  vassals  or  serfs. 
These  again  divided  up  the  land  in  farms  to  their  vassals. 
In  this  way  the  idea  of  a  king  was  not  forgotten,  even  though 
he  seemed  to  have  so  little  power,  for  the  nobles  owed  him 
allegiance  and  service.  Sometimes  when  there  was  war 
between  two  great  nobles,  the  king  was  called  in  as  peace- 
maker. In  this  way  he  showed  that  he  still  had  a  little 
power  left.  However,  the  common  people  owed  no  duties 
to  the  king,  but  only  to  their  lords. 

Fighting  as  a  Business.  —  Fighting  was  the  chief  occu- 
pation of  the  feudal  lords.  With  so  much  selfishness  and 
greed  and  so  many  chances  to  quarrel,  there  was  no  trouble 
in  finding  an  excuse  for  war.  Each  lord  had  proud  enemies 
all  about  him.     At  some  time  in  his  life  he  was  likely  to 


FEUDALISM  145 

fight  each  of  his  neighboring  lords,  bishops,  and  abbots, 
then  his  fellow-vassals,  and  lastly  his  under  vassals.  Every- 
body took  advantage  of  a  weak  neighbor.  A  son  often 
carried  on  war  against  his  father  to  get  hold  of  part  of  the 
estate  before  the  father's  death;  younger  brothers  often 
fought  against  older  ones. 

The  Lord's  Court.  —  Each  lord  had  a  court  to  settle  the 
disputes  of  his  vassals,  but  often  he  let  them  fight  it  out 
rather  than  force  upon  them  the  decisions  of  his  own  court. 
The  laws  of  those  days  did  not  forbid  neighborhood  fighting, 
but  merely  provided  that  neighbors  should  fight  in  a  decent 
and  gentlemanly  way. 

The  "  Truce  of  God."  —  These  continual  wars  were  very 
destructive.  People  were  killed  off  in  great  numbers, 
buildings  were  burned,  and  crops  laid  waste.  It  was 
impossible  in  such  wild  times  for  the  people  to  grow  more 
civilized.  The  poor  came  to  wish  more  and  more  for  peace. 
The  church  always  opposed  war;  now  it  finally  brought 
about  the  "  Truce  of  God,"  which  prohibited  all  fighting 
from  Thursday  evening  of  each  week  until  the  following 
Monday  morning.  Likewise  on  fast  days  warring  was 
forbidden.  The  bishops  forced  the  feudal  lords  to  take 
oath  to  keep  this  weekly  truce.  If  any  lord  refused,  he 
was  excommunicated  from  the  church  and  was  declared  an 
outcast.  In  those  days  there  was  but  one  church,  and  to 
be  turned  out  of  it  was  a  trying  punishment.  Thus  the 
church  gradually  helped  to  do  away  with  fighting  for  a  part 
of  every  week. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  meaning  of  feudalism?  2.  What  started  feudal- 
ism? 3.  Describe  the  castle.  4.  How  was  it  protected  ?  5.  What 
workers  were  there  in  it?  6.  Describe  the  life  of  a  peasant. 
7.   What  agreement  was  made  between  the  noble  and  the  peasant  ? 


146    DAWN  OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

8.  What  was  a  fief  ?  9.  A  vassal?  10.  Why  could  the  lord  grow 
so  strong?  11.  Discuss  tolls  and  taxes.  12.  What  power  had  the 
king  at  this  time  ?  13.  Why  was  there  so  much  fighting  ?  14.  What 
was  the  result  of  such  continual  fighting  ?  15.  What  was  the  "Truce 
of  God"? 


CHAPTER   XI 
CASTLE  LIFE 


How  Castles  were  Protected.  —  The  nobles  and  barons 
were  not  fighting  all  the  time ;  now  we  will  get  a  glimpse 
of  how  they  lived  in  their 
castles  during  days  of 
peace.  The  castles  were 
enormous  buildings  of 
stone,  the  walls  of  which 
were  often  so  thick  that 
a  man  crawling  out  of  a 
window  would  have  to 
creep  three  times  his 
length.  On  the  outside 
of  the  wall  was  a  wide 
moat,  or  ditch,  filled  with 
water.  Along  the  outer 
edge  of  the  moat  was 
often  a  palisade.  If  the 
enemy  got  over  the  pali- 
sade and  across  the  moat, 
he  was  face  to  face  with 
the  huge  wall  upon  which 
were  the  defenders  of  the 
castle,  who  might  hurl 
down  stones  or  logs  or  boiling  pitch.  At  short  intervals 
along  the  walls  were  strong  towers  with  narrow  windows 
from  which  to  shoot. 


Plan  of  a  Castle. 


147 


148     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 


The  Entrance.  —  The  gate  to  the  castle  was  even  more 
strongly  guarded.  In  front  of  the  gate  was  a  drawbridge 
across  the  moat.  The  drawbridge  was  lowered  to  allow 
friends  to  cross  this  ditch  and  then  raised  on  end  against 
the  wall  to  prevent  enemies  from  entering.  On  both  sides 
of  the  gateway  were  heavy  towers  of  stone,  which  were 
filled  with  warriors  in  case  of  attack.     Loopholes  looked 


The  Drawbridge. 

down  on  the  enemy  from  many  directions.  Between  these 
tall  towers  were  great  wooden  doors,  and  behind  the  doors 
was  a  heavy  iron  grating  called  a  portcullis,  which  was 
lowered  to  block  the  entrance  of  an  enemy.  Keen-eyed 
guards  were  always  on  the  lookout  for  foes.  So  strong 
and  so  massive  were  these  castles  that  the  gray  walls  of 
many  of  them  are  still  to  be  seen  to-day,  crowning  the  hill- 
tops of  Europe.  Upon  such  a  fort  as  this  the  Northmen 
spent  their  force  in  vain.  Seldom  did  they  get  a  peep 
inside  of  such  strongholds. 


CASTLE   LIFE  149 

A  Peep  Within.  —  But  we  may  enter,  for  we  are  friends. 
One  blast  of  our  familiar  bugle  horn  and  the  drawbridge  is 
lowered  by  its  huge  chains,  and  we  cross  the  moat.  The 
wooden  gate  is  opened,  the  iron  grating,  or  portcullis,  is 
raised,  and  we  enter  the  courtyard.  Here  we  see  a  variety 
of  buildings  and  an  open  space  of  several  acres,  perhaps, 
which  may  serve  to  shelter  cattle  and  other  live  stock  when 
the  plunderers  are  abroad.  Near  at  hand  are  stables  for 
the  horses  of  the  knights.  We  see  the  great  oven  where 
the  bread  is  baked  for  the  lord  and  his  followers.  Near  by 
is  a  building  with  storerooms  and  cellars  for  storing  provi- 
sions, because,  in  case  of  a  long  siege,  much  food  is  needed. 
Next  we  behold  the  great  kitchen  where  cooking  is  done, 
and  possibly  a  chapel. 

The  Donjon  Keep.  —  Now,  to  our  surprise,  we  come  upon 
a  fort  within  the  fort.  It  is  the  keep,  or  "  donjon,"  with 
walls  of  stone  eight  or  ten  feet  thick.  This  is  the  last  and 
stoutest  defense  of  all  for  the  noble  and  his  family.  We 
find  it  provided  with  its  own  well  and  storerooms,  and  be- 
neath it  are  also  dark  dungeons  for  prisoners.  The  only 
way  to  take  it  would  be  to  starve  out  the  defenders  by  a 
long  siege.  Even  when  that  is  done,  there  are  hidden  or 
underground  passages  leading  to  the  moat  outside  the  wall, 
so  that  the  baron  and  his  family  may  escape  to  the  open 
country  rather  than  be  captured  and  thrown  into  his  own 
dark  dungeons  to  die. 

Workers  in  the  Castle.  —  The  people  who  lived  in  the 
castle  were  not  all  knights.  There  were  craftsmen  of  several 
kinds.  Each  great  lord  had  his  tailor  and  blacksmith, 
his  saddler  and  shoewrights,  who  made  of  hides"  shoes  of 
various  kinds,  leather  bottles,  bridles,  halters,  and  pouches. 
The  most  important  of  all,  perhaps,  were  the  swordsmiths 
and  the  makers  of  armor.     A  number  of  women  also  were 


150     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

gathered  into  a  sort  of  factory,  making  clothes  for  all  the 
people  in  the  castle. 

The  Page.  —  It  was  the  great  hope  of  every  high-born 
lad  of  those  days  to  become  a  knight  when  he  grew  up. 
At  the  age  of  seven  these  boys  were  taken  to  the  castle 
of  some  great  noble,  where  they  were  to  be  trained  for 
knighthood.  Between  the  ages  of  seven  and  fourteen  the 
lad  was  called  a  page.  It  was  the  page's  duty  to  attend 
his  master  and  mistress  in  their  travels  or  on  hunting  trips, 
and  to  be  polite  and  courteous  to  all,  especially  to  ladies. 
A  page  carried  messages,  waited  on  his  lord  and  lady  at 
meals,  carved  their  food,  and  poured  their  drinks.  Pages 
played  at  doing  everything  they  saw  knights  do.  They 
held  combats  or  duels  among  themselves,  using  sticks  for 
lances  or  swords.  These  boys  were  most  anxious  to  be- 
come squires.  Sometimes  if  they  showed  skill  and  bravery, 
they  were  made  squires  younger  than  their  fellows,  and  so 
every  page  wished  to  show  his  bravery  in  any  way  he  could. 

Becoming  a  Squire.  —  When  about  fourteen,  the  page 
went  through  a  very  solemn  ceremony  to  become  a  squire. 
He  stood  before  the  altar  and  received  from  the  hands  of 
the  priest  a  sword  upon  which  the  priest  had  pronounced 
a  blessing.  This  consecrated  sword  the  page  promised  to 
wield  on  behalf  of  honor  and  of  the  church. 

Duties  of  a  Squire.  —  As  a  squire  his  time  was  spent  in 
hard  training  for  knighthood.  He  put  on  heavy  armor  and 
practiced  leaping  to  the  back  of  a  horse,  and  walking  or 
running  long  distances  on  foot.  He  turned  somersaults, 
he  struck  blows  with  a  battle-ax,  or  hurled  spears  and  lances. 
Clad  in  full  armor,  he  was  expected,  by  placing  both  hands 
on  the  saddle,  to  leap  clean  over  his  horse.  It  was  a  duty 
of  the  squire  to  receive  visiting  nobles  to  his  master's 
court.     He  must  care  for  the  stables,  break  in  new  chargers, 


CASTLE   LIFE 


151 


"'    "      "' "     T-1""'  A  ...■'■  1                          : 

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'Sbt, 

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;/'.    ' 

l^j^^^H 

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-J* 

W-~ 

8% 

•S 

^~j  ""-'^j^B 

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S^ 

qPC^^^H 

152     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

and  assist  his  lord  to  mount  his  horse.  Squires  fastened 
the  armor  on  their  lord.  If  he  were  unhorsed  in  battle, 
they  were  at  hand  with  a  fresh  horse  and  helped  him  to 
remount.  If  wounded,  they  tried  to  carry  him  from  the 
field  before  he  was  slain.  They  also  had  charge  of  all 
prisoners  taken  by  the  knights  on  the  field  of  battle. 

The  Spurs  were  Won.  —  After  the  squire  had  shown 
himself  honorable  and  brave  and  had  "  won  his  spurs," 
he  prepared  to  become  a  knight.  He  ate  no  food  for  days, 
he  spent  three  nights  in  prayer,  he  appeared  before  the  altar 
clad  in  pure  white  to  see  his  sword  consecrated.  And  then 
a  day  was  fixed  for  the  great  ceremony.  He  again  appeared 
before  the  altar  on  bended  knee  with  the  sword  suspended 
from  his  neck,  for  he  had  not  yet  the  right  to  gird  it  to  his 
side.  The  bishop  took  the  sword  from  its  scabbard  and 
gave  it  to  the  knight,  saying,  "  Receive  this  blade  in  the 
name  of  the  Father  and  use  it  for  your  own  defense  and  that 
of  God's  Holy  Church,  and,  so  far  as  possible,  wound  no 
one  unjustly  with  it."  The  new-made  knight  arose,  bran- 
dished the  sword,  wiped  it  on  his  left  arm,  and  replaced  it 
in  the  scabbard.  The  bishop  gave  him  the  kiss  of  peace, 
saying,  "  Peace  be  with  thee."  Then  with  the  naked  sword 
he  struck  the  knight  gently  three  times  on  the  shoulders, 
saying,  "  Be  thou  a  peaceable,  brave,  and  faithful  warrior." 
The  knight  next  received  his  armor  —  cuirass,  gauntlets, 
helmet,  and  sword ;  other  knights  put  on  his  spurs,  gave 
him  his  shield  and  lance,  and  his  charger  was  brought. 

Two  Duties  of  a  Knight.  —  Whenever  a  knight  was 
present  at  mass,  he  held  the  point  of  his  sword  before  him 
while  the  Gospel  was  read,  to  show  his  determination  to 
defend  religion.  The  German  nations  had  great  respect 
for  their  women,  who  were  noble  and  virtuous ;  and  this 
regard  came  to  enter  into  knighthood,  for  each  knight  was 


CASTLE  LIFE 


153 


A  Knight  in  Armor. 


154     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

bound  to  protect  the  weak.  Knights  were  commanded  to 
love  God  and  the  ladies.  It  was  believed  in  the  castles 
that  he  who  was  faithful  and  true  to  his  mistress  was  al- 
most sure  of  reward  in  the  next  world. 

The  Crusades.  —  When  the  Mohammedan  Turks  cap- 
tured Jerusalem,  the  Christian  knights  of  all  Europe  burned 
with  a  desire  to  win  back  the  tomb  of  Christ  from  these 
Turks.  After  that  time,  every  knight  pledged  himself  to  be 
ready  to  go  on  a  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land,  when  the  op- 
portunity came. 

A  False  Knight  was  Expelled.  —  If  a  knight  broke  his 
sacred  vows,  or  proved  to  be  a  man  without  honor,  he  was 
degraded.  He  was  stripped  of  his  armor,  which  was  broken 
to  pieces  before  riis  eyes.  His  spurs  were  cast  into  the  mud. 
His  shield  was  tied  to  a  work  horse  and  dragged  through 
the  dirt,  and  his  charger's  tail  cut  off.  The  dishonored 
knight  was  then  placed  on  a  scaffold  in  nothing  tut  his 
shirt,  and  a  herald  called  out  three  times  in  a  loud  voice, 
"  Who  is  there?  "  Each  time  he  was  answered  with  the 
name  of  the  knight,  and  each  time  the  herald  replied : 
"  No,  it  is  not  so.  I  see  no  knight  here ;  I  see  only  a  coward 
who  has  been  false  to  his  sacred  vows." 

Training  of  the  Women.  —  Women  of  the  higher  classes 
were  taught  from  childhood  to  do  acts  of  kindness  to  friends 
and  strangers,  and  especially  to  knights  who  might  enter 
their  castles.  On  a  knight's  return  from  battle  or  from  a 
tournament,  the  women  unbuckled  his  armor  with  their 
own  hands,  brought  forth  perfumed  and  spotless  linen  and 
a  mantle  and  a  scarf  that  they  had  embroidered.  They 
prepared  his  bath  and  waited  upon  him  at  table.  They 
did  their  utmost  to  win  approval  by  modest  behavior. 

Respect  for  Women.  —  Women  have  not  usually  had 
much  influence  among  people  of  rude  manners,  because  they 


CASTLE   LIFE 


155 


had  no  chance  to  show  their  beauty  and  grace  by  becom- 
ing dress  and  adornment.  These  are  woman's  God-given 
charms  and  her  defense,  just  as  strength  and  power  are 
man's.  So  long  as  man's  pastimes  were  only  drunken 
brawls,  woman  had  no  part  in  them.  But  castle  life  gave 
the  women  a  chance  to  share  in  man's  pleasures ;  and  she 
quickly  improved  them  by  driving  out  much  of  the  drunken- 


Castle  of  Falaise. 


ness  and  rude  manners.  Commerce  began  to  bring  in  the 
rich  furs  of  the  North  and  the  fine  silks  of  Asia  and  the 
wrought  gold  of  home  manufacture.  With  such  adorn- 
ments, the  women  soon  cast  a  spell  of  loveliness  and  beauty 
over  the  life  of  the  castles. 

A  Banquet  in  the  Castle.  —  Women  were  present  at 
festivals  and  tournaments,  and  sat  among  the  men  in  the 
halls  of  their  castles.  A  story  of  those  days  tells  of  a  great 
feast,  where  eight  hundred  knights  had  each  of  them  a 


156     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

lady  eating  off  his  plate.  For  to  eat  off  the  same  plate 
was  then  a  sign  of  friendship.  Lords  and  ladies  often  gath- 
ered in  the  great  hall  of  the  castle  for  a  banquet.  Tables 
were  loaded  down  with  roast  pork,  hams,  sausages,  beef, 
poultry,  and  game  of  all  kinds.  The  feast  sometimes  con- 
tinued several  days.  Minstrels  came  from  far  and  near 
with  their  songs  and  stories.  Some  of  them  played  all 
sorts  of  instruments.  There  were  jugglers  who  performed 
feats.  They  tumbled,  turned  somersaults,  and  leaped 
through  hoops,  placed  a  certain  distance  apart.  They 
played  with  knives,  slings,  baskets,  balls,  and  plates ;  they 
walked  on  their  hands  with  their  feet  in  the  air.  Even 
women  sometimes  became  acrobats.  There  were  also  court 
fools,  who  were  often  dwarfs  or  comically  deformed.  They 
were  dressed  ridiculously  as  clowns  are  to-day.  There  were 
rope  walkers,  too,  some  of  whom  even  danced  upon  a  rope. 
Games  and  Sports.  —  The  people  of  the  castles  played 
games  of  chance  such  as  dice.  Chess  and  backgammon 
were  also  favorite  indoor  games.  Dancing  was  likewise 
popular  in  society,  even  though  it  was  forbidden  by  the 
Catholic  Church.  A  favorite  sport  in  the  Dark  Ages  was 
hunting.  Kings,  nobles,  knights,  and  ladies  all  vied  with  one 
another  in  the  chase.  Animals  were  often  brought  in  from 
foreign  countries  to  stock  the  woods,  or  to  be  used  in  catching 
other  animals.  They  used  the  hound  and  hawk  in  the 
chase,  and  also  the  leopard  and  panther  from  Africa.  The 
sportsmen  rode  across  the  country,  preceded  by  their 
dogs,  each  hunter  with  a  leopard  sitting  behind  him  on  the 
saddle.  When  the  dogs  started  the  game,  the  leopard 
was  let  loose.  He  sprang  from  the  horse,  and  as  he  caught 
the  game,  the  hunter  galloped  up  and  threw  the  leopard  a 
piece  of  raw  meat,  for  which  he  gave  up  his  prey  and  re- 
mounted behind  his  master. 


CASTLE   LIFE 


157 


Hunting  with  Hawks.  —  Another  delight  of  the  nobles  of 
the  Middle  Ages  was  falconry  or  hunting  with  a  hawk. 
When  a  knight  went  hawking,  he  carried  his  falcon  sitting 
on  his  wrist.  It  was  fastened  by  a  stout  cord  or  chain,  and 
its  head  was  covered  with  a  hood.  When  game  was  started, 
the  falcon  was  unhooded  and  sent  after  its  prey.  Hawking 
was  held  in  such  esteem  that  a  nobleman  or  his  lady  never 


A  Sport  or  the  Day. 


appeared  in  public  without  a  bird  on  the  wrist  as  a  mark  of 
dignity.  Even  bishops  and  abbots  entered  the  churches 
with  their  hunting  birds,  which  they  placed  on  the  steps  of 
the  altar  during  the  service.  Everybody  of  importance  had 
hunting  birds  of  some  sort  to  keep  up  his  rank. 

Training  the  Bird.  —  "  To  train  the  bird,  he  was  first 
made  fearless  of  men,  horses,  and  dogs.  Then  a  string  was 
fastened  to  one  leg,  and  the  bird  was  allowed  to  fly  a  short 


158     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

distance,  when  he  was  brought  back  to  the  lure  or  mock  bird, 
where  he  always  found  a  dainty  bit  of  food.  Then  the 
hunter  would  throw  down  a  wounded  partridge  close  by, 
and  let  the  falcon  loose  to  catch  it.  It  was  at  once  taken 
from  him,  and  he  was  rewarded  by  choice  food  again.  If 
the  bird  was  to  hunt  hares,  a  stuffed  hare  within  which  was 
food,  was  dragged  before  the  bird." 

The  Value  of  a  Falcon.  —  A  well-trained  falcon  was  a 
bird  of  great  value  and  was  the  finest  present  that  could  be 
made  to  a  lady  or  a  noble,  or  to  the  king  himself.  The 
arrival  at  court  of  a  hawk  dealer  from  a  foreign  country  was 
a  great  event.  In  the  fourteenth  century  there  were  so  many 
nobles  who  hawked  that  in  the  rooms  of  inns  there  were 
perches  made  under  the  large  mantelpieces,  on  which  to  place 
the  birds  while  the  sportsmen  were  at  dinner.  Emperors 
and  kings  were  as  keen  as  others  for  this  amusement. 

The  Tournament.  — -  Another  favorite  entertainment  of 
knights  was  the  tournament.  In  the  early  days  the  tourna- 
ment was  a  rough  and  violent  sport,  wherein  knights  fought 
with  weapons  with  dulled  points  and  edges.  Still  we  read 
of  a  tournament  in  Germany  where  sixty  knights  were 
killed.  The  iron  men  of  those  days  loved  to  measure 
strength,  one  against  the  other,  with  sword  strokes,  lance 
thrusts,  or  mace  blows.  In  later  days  this  extreme  rough- 
ness was  done  away  with. 

The  Field  or  List.  —  The  tournament  took  place  in  a 
large  square  or  circle,  marked  out  near  some  castle  or  abbey. 
The  field  was  decorated  with  ornaments  and  gay-colored 
banners.  There  were  stands  roofed  for  the  shelter  of  per- 
sons of  rank  in  bad  weather.  Here  were  stationed  princes 
and  judges  and,  sometimes,  kings  and  queens. 

Only  Honorable  Knights  Enter.  —  The  knights  who  were 
to  take  part  had  their  banners  and  coats  of  arms  hung 


CASTLE   LIFE 


159 


upon  the  walls  of  the  monastery  or  castle  near  by,  and  these 
were  inspected  by  nobles  and  ladies.  If  a  lady  had  a  com- 
plaint against  any  knight  who  was  about  to  enter  the  sport, 
she  touched  his  banner.     Then  an  inquiry  was  made,  and 


A  Tournament. 


if  the  knight  were  found  guilty,  he  was  forbidden  to  appear 
at  the  tournament. 

Entering  the  Field.  —  The  squires  came  into  the  arena 
for  a  trial  of  strength  as  a  prelude  to  the  real  tournament. 


160     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

The  squires  fought  with  less  dangerous  weapons,  and  those 
who  made  a  fine  showing  were  soon  knighted.  Then  came 
the  knights  with  slow  and  solemn  procession,  all  magnifi- 
cently armed  and  equipped,  and  followed  by  their  squires. 
Each  lady  had  given  a  scarf  or  a  veil  to  her  favorite  knight. 


Conferring  Knighthood  on  the  Field  of  Battle. 

This  was  placed  on  his  shield  or  helmet,  so  that  his  lady 
might  be  able  to  recognize  him. 

The  Combat.  —  When  the  knights  in  full  armor  rode  at 
each  other  at  full  speed  with  leveled  spears,  there  was  great 
shouting ;  and  every  brilliant  stroke  brought  loud  applause. 
As  the  lady  saw  her  favorite  getting  the  best  of  his  opponent 
she  threw  coins  to  the  crowd,  whereat  they  set  up  a  tre- 


CASTLE  LIFE  161 

mendous  shouting.  When  the  combat  was  over,  the  judges 
declared  the  victors.  The  prizes  were  given  by  the  ladies, 
and  the  winners  were  dressed  in  splendid  clothes.  Later 
the  victors  were  celebrated  in  poems  and  songs.  Victory 
at  a  tournament  was  attended  with  more  glory  than  a 
victory  upon  the  real  battlefield,  because  no  battle  could  be 
viewed  by  such  distinguished  witnesses. 

The  Weapons.  —  In  the  later  tournaments  the  weapons 
were  pointless  and  often  of  wood,  and  the  laws  bound  the 
knights  to  strike  only  upon  the  strong  armor  of  the  body. 
Still  the  combat  often  ended  in  wounds  and  death.  The 
church  objected  to  the  sport,  but  in  vain. 

What  Knighthood  Taught  the  People.  —  This  system  of 
knighthood,  or  chivalry,  taught  the  people  of  the  Middle 
Ages  many  good  lessons.  It  taught  the  sacredness  of  reli- 
gion, of  respect  for  women,  and  of  honor.  It  taught  the 
knights  to  be  just  and  to  defend  the  weak  from  the  strong. 
It  taught  men  to  be  loyal,  for  to  break  a  promise  was  a 
disgrace.  A  knight  who  was  not  courteous  was  a  brute  to 
be  barred  from  good  society.  Knights  were  expected  to  be 
generous,  to  distribute  wealth  to  minstrels,  to  poor  knights, 
and  to  the  common  people  who  were  suffering. 

Knighthood  Disappears.  —  When  gunpowder  was  in- 
vented, it  did  away  with  knights  in  armor,  for  no  knight 
could  wear  steel  armor  thick  enough  to  protect  him  from  a 
powder-driven  bullet.  Foot  soldiers  could  then  defeat 
mounted  knights.  Thus  knighthood  and  chivalry,  having 
taught  the  world  all  the  lessons  they  could  teach,  and  being 
no  longer  needed,  disappeared  along  with  tournaments. 


162     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

QUESTIONS 

Amusements  at  Castle  —  i .  Discuss  the  banquets,  the  games,  and 
dancing.  2.  Why  was  hunting  so  popular?  3.  Where  did  they 
hunt?  4.  How?  5.  Of  what  use  were  the  leopard  and  falcon? 
6.  How  were  these  birds  trained?  7.  What  was  a  tournament? 
8.  Where  was  it  held  ?  9.  Who  took  part  ?  10.  Describe  a  combat. 
11.  How  did  a  page  spend  his  time?  12.  How  did  he  become  a 
squire?  13.  What  were  the  duties  of  a  squire?  14.  How  did  a 
squire  become  a  knight?  15.  What  were  the  duties  of  a  knight? 
16.  What  happened  to  a  false  knight  ?  17.  What  did  the  women  in 
the  castle  do  ?  18.  What  did  knighthood  teach  the  people  ?  19.  What 
caused  knighthood  to  decline  ?     20.   Why  ? 


CHAPTER  XII 
HOW   THE   PEOPLE   LIVED 

The  Manor.  —  Most  people  in  the  Dark  Ages  grouped 
themselves,  largely  according  to  kin,  in  villages  that  con- 
tained a  score  or  more  of  houses.  Each  village  was  sur- 
rounded by  plowlands,  meadows,  pastures,  and  woods. 
The  village  and  its  near-by  land  was  called  a  manor  or  a  vill. 
The  whole  country  was  broken  up  into  manors,  each  of 
which  belonged  to  some  lord  or  abbot. 

The  Manor  House.  —  Nor  far  from  the  village  stood  the 
lord's  castle,  or  manor  house,  with  its  halls  for  holding 
court,  its  court  yard,  its  houses  for  cooking  and  brewing, 
and  its  farm  buildings.  Near  by  was  an  orchard  and  a  gar- 
den. The  village  and  manor  house  were  usually  built  near 
a  stream,  whose  current  was  used  to  run  the  mill  that  ground 
corn  for  all  the  people  of  the  manor.  In  each  village  was 
also  a  church  and  a  parsonage. 

The  Houses  of  the  Village.  —  The  houses  of  the  village 
were  mostly  dirty  hovels,  one-roomed  and  thatch-roofed, 
with  a  hole  in  the  roof,  like  that  of  an  Indian  wigwam,  for 
smoke  to  go  out  and  light  to  come  in.  Even  in  the  well-to- 
do  houses,  glass  was  rare.  When  there  were  windows,  they 
were  covered  with  oiled  linen  cloth,  or  paper  that  admitted 
a  little  light  and  kept  out  the  snow  and  rain.  The  poor  had 
a  fire  in  the  middle  of  the  house,  and  the  wife  and  children 
hovered  about  it  in  the  ashes  and  dirt.  They  slept  on 
straw  for  a  bed,  with  mats  of  bearskin  or  the  skins  of  ani- 
mals for  warmth.     The  stable  for  cattle  was  often  under  the 

163 


1 64     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 


HOW  THE   PEOPLE  LIVED  165 

same  roof  with  the  house.  Carpets  were  unknown.  There 
were  no  floors,  but  the  ground  was  covered  with  straw  or 
rushes.  When  the  straw  became  old  and  worn  out,  it  was 
not  removed,  but  simply  covered  with  a  fresh  layer.  This 
must  have  had  something  to  do  with  the  frequent  and  awful 
plagues  of  those  times. 

Furniture.  —  The  furniture  was  rude ;  rough-hewn 
benches  and  stools  were  used  instead  of  chairs.  The  drink- 
ing cups  were  of  horn  or  wood.  Sometimes  gourds  were 
used. 

People  were  Farmers.  —  Behind  each  house  of  the  vil- 
lage was  usually  an  orchard  of  apples  and  pears,  and  a 
small  garden  in  which  grew  cabbages,  onions,  parsnips,  and 
carrots,  but  no  potatoes,  for  the  original  home  of  the  potato 
was  America,  and  America  was  still  unknown  to  Europeans. 

Since  the  roads  were  so  poor,  and  there  were  robbers 
everywhere  in  hiding,  there  could  be  little  trade  or  com- 
merce. The  village  tried  to  produce  everything  that  it 
needed  so  to  be  free  from  the  uncertainties  and  expense  of 
trade.  Save  a  blacksmith,  a  shoemaker,  and  a  carpenter, 
all  the  villagers  were  farmers.  Their  tools  were  rude,  and 
very  poor  crops  were  raised.  They  did  not  fertilize  the 
land  with  plant  food,  so  the  fields  had  to  lie  unused  every 
third  year,  to  rest.  The  farmers  seldom  got  more  than  six 
or  eight  bushels  of  wheat  or  rye  from  an  acre,  and  two 
bushels  of  this  had  to  be  kept  for  seed.  To-day  an  acre 
of  the  same  land  yields  thirty  or  more  bushels.  Sometimes 
there  was  a  crop  failure,  which  caused  a  famine,  for  there 
was  no  way  to  get  food  from  abroad.  In  such  times  the 
people  were  forced  to  live  on  acorns,  roots,  and  bark ;  and 
great  numbers  starved.  In  years  of  good  harvest  the 
people  lived  better,  but  they  had  not  learned  to  save 
for  the  days  of  famine. 


1 66     DAWN  OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

Everybody  Held  Land.  —  The  villagers  all  held  their 
land  from  the  lord  of  the  castle  or  manor,  and  they  paid 
him  rent  in  produce,  or  in  day's  labor  upon  the  fields  that 
he  kept  for  his  own  use.  The  amount  of  land  held  by  each 
villager  varied  from  a  hundred  or  more  acres  to  a  small 
strip  of  ground.  Some  had  only  a  patch  of  garden  and  a 
cottage  to  dwell  in,  and  these  were  called  cotters. 

Farms  Scattered  in  Strips.  —  Strangely  a  man's  farm  was 
not  all  in  one  piece,  but  was  made  up  of  a  strip  here  and  a 
strip  there,  and  one  yonder.  These  several  separate  strips 
of  land  were  scattered  in  different  fields  among  those  of 
other  farmers.  Because  of  this,  the  farmers  cultivated  their 
crops  in  common,  with  a  plow  team  of  eight  or  twelve 
oxen,  for  the  plow  was  rude  and  heavy.  Each  villager 
brought  his  single  ox, or  yoke  of  oxen,  as  his  part  of  the  team. 

The  Pasture  and  the  Meadow.  —  There  was  a  common 
pasture  land,  where  all  might  pasture  their  cows  and  horses  ; 
and  the  woods  fed  droves  of  pigs  with  beechnuts  and  acorns. 
But  perhaps  the  most  valuable  land  of  all  was  the  meadow, 
where  wild  grass  was  cut  with  a  rude  scythe.  This  wild 
hay  was  in  great  demand  to  feed  the  stock  through  the  long 
winters.  These  villagers  knew  nothing  of  timothy,  or  clover, 
or  alfalfa.  Most  of  the  cattle,  hogs,  and  sheep  had  to  be 
killed  and  salted  down  in  the  fall,  for  lack  of  feed  to  win- 
ter them  on.  It  is  said,  "  Those  that  survived  were  often 
so  weak  in  the  spring  that  they  had  to  be  dragged  to  pas- 
ture on  a  sledge." 

Articles  Brought  in  by  Traders.  —  For  preserving  their 
meat  through  the  winter,  salt  was  brought  from  the  salt 
works  on  the  seashore,  where  it  was  obtained  by  evaporating 
sea  water  in  huge  pans.  Another  article  that  had  to  be 
obtained  abroad  and  brought  in  was  iron  for  weapons  and 
farm  tools.     In  addition,  millstone  and  tar,  to  keep  mur- 


HOW  THE   PEOPLE  LIVED 


16' 


rain  from  the  sheep,  were  imported.  The  churches  needed 
certain  things  that  were  not  made  in  the  village ;  and  the 
nobles  obtained  wine,  spices,  and  fur  from  abroad.  Trade 
was  carried  on  by  peddlers,  who  carried  their  wares  on 
their  backs  or  on  pack  animals. 

Slave  Trade.  —  There  was  one  kind  of  property  that  was 
easily  transported,  and  that  was  slaves.  Chained  together, 
they  were  often  driven  in  troops  of  a  hundred  or  more, 


Manor  House. 

from  country  to  country.  King  Alfred  made  a  law  to 
keep  a  father  from  selling  his  daughter  to  servitude  among 
strange  people. 

Food.  —  The  food  of  the  plain  people  was  coarse  and 
limited  to  a  few  dishes.  Wheat  bread  was  only  for  the  well- 
to-do,  the  poor  having  white  bread  only  on  feast  days. 
Bread  made  of  barley  was  more  common.  The  poor  man 
had  to  be  content  with  bread  made  of  a  mixture  of  rye, 
oats,  and  beans,  which  was  dark  and  tough.  Leaven  or 
yeast  was  unknown ;   and  so  the  bread  was  heavy.     It  had 


1 68     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

to  be  baked  thin  and  was  used  for  plates  to  cut  other  food 
on.  When  this  bread  plate  became  softened  with  sauce 
and  gravy,  it  was  cut  up  and  eaten  as  cake.  The  rich 
had  ovens  for  baking,  but  the  poor  used  an  iron  plate  or  a 
covered  iron  dish,  surrounded  by  hot  coals.  They  might 
use  the  lord's  oven  if  they  were  able  to  pay  the  toll. 

Meat,  the  Food  of  the  Well-to-do.  —  While  the  poor 
must  live  largely  on  black  bread  and  cabbages,  the  rich 
ate  meat  —  chiefly  pork  in  winter,  because  it  was  best 
fitted  for  salting  down.  If  a  servant  ate  meat  of  his  own 
accord,  he  was  fined  or  "  made  to  suffer  in  his  hide."  Lords, 
bishops,  and  abbots  had  great  droves  of  swine  for  them- 
selves. Even  in  the  towns  every  family  had  a  pig  or  two, 
which  were  allowed  to  roam  the  streets.  Fish  was  much 
used  for  food,  and  the  rivers  were  then  more  plentifully 
stocked  with  them  than  now.  Sea  fish  were  not  caught, 
because  the  people  had  not  learned  how. 

Preserving  Meat.  —  Salt  was  expensive  in  the  Dark  Ages 
on  account  of  the  long  haul,  or  the  carriage  on  horseback 
over  mud  roads.  It  was  used  so  scantily  in  salting  down 
meat  for  winter's  use  that  the  bacon  often  became  rancid 
and  the  ham  covered  with  maggots  long  before  the  winter 
was  over.  JFor  months  at  a  time  fresh  meat  could  not  be 
had,  and  so  much  salt  food  was  a  cause  of  disease. 

Honey  Instead  of  Sugar.  —  Sugar  was  unknown.  Every- 
body who  could  kept  bees  for  honey.  So  precious  were 
swarms  of  bees  that  they  were  left  by  will  to  favored  chil- 
dren or  friends.  In  summer  new  swarms  were  often  sold 
before  they  came  from  the  hive.  The  woods  were  searched 
for  bee  trees;  and  the  night  when  such  a  tree  was  cut 
down  was  one  of  great  merriment. 

What  the  People  Drank.  —  The  people  of  the  Dark  Ages 
drank  beer.     Every  lord  and  bishop  and  abbot  had  his 


HOW  THE   PEOPLE   LIVED 


169 


brewery.  The  French  had  two  kinds  of  beer  —  one  made 
from  grains  and  honey  for  the  rich,  the  other  made  without 
honey  for  the  poor.  Cider  was  also  a  common  drink. 
Wealthy  people  made  and  drank  wines.  Coffee  and  tea 
were  unknown. 
The  people  sat  at 
table  to  eat.  They 
had  knives  and 
spoons  but  no  forks. 
Clothing  and 
Fashions.  —  The 
workers  wore  hardly 
any  clothing.  Their 
arms  and  legs  were 
free.  They  wore 
but  one  garment, 
which  reached  to 
the  knee.  It  was 
held  at  the  waist 
with  a  belt  of  rope 
or  leather,  in  which 
was  worn  a  knife 
for  hacking  bread 
or  stabbing  an 
enemy.  For  a  long 
time  it  was  the 
fashion  in  England 
to    wear    a    full 

beard.  The  hair  was  worn  long.  Nobles  swore  by  their 
hair.  It  was  thought  to  be  the  height  of  politeness  to  pull 
out  a  hair  and  present  it  to  a  person.  Sometimes  a  king 
or  a  bishop,  who  had  been  on  a  long  journey,  carried  home 
a  handful  of  hair. 


mepMj^ 

&.I1BMe?^^ 

1     1 

BB     1 

Costumes  or  that  Day. 


170     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

People  Unclean.  —  No  one  pretended  to  keep  clean,  even 
in  the  castles.  People  passed  the  days  and  nights  in  the 
same  clothes.  They  wore  the  same  woolen,  fur,  or  leather 
garments  for  a  lifetime,  and  then  bequeathed  them  to 
others  to  wear.  They  slept  under  uncleansed  sheepskins 
upon  musty  straw  in  windowless  and  airless  rooms,  which 
were  damp  and  full  of  disease.     Their  narrow,  crooked  alleys 


Conway  Castle. 


or  streets  were  piled  with  all  sorts  of  refuse ;  and  the  mire 
was  often  knee-deep  to  men  and  beasts.  The  drinking 
water  was  from  wells  that  were  often  polluted  by  street 
water.  In  dark,  damp  dungeons  under  the  castles,  prisoners 
were  starved  to  death  and  their  bodies  were  never  taken 
out.  Every  church  was  full  of  corpses,  for  they  usually 
buried  the  dead  within  the  church.  It  is  not  surprising 
that  great  plagues  swept  over  the  land,  sometimes  destroy- 
ing half  the  population.     The  wonder  is  that  any  people 


HOW  THE   PEOPLE   LIVED  171 

lived  through  such  unsanitary  conditions.  Children  must 
have  died  by  the  thousands.  Those  who  lived,  suffered 
from  itch,  scurvy,  ringworm,  and  a  score  of  diseases.  At 
the  gates  of  every  town  were  many  lepers,  covered  with 
loathsome  sores  and  begging  for  food. 

Cruel  and  Barbarous  Laws.  —  The  laws  of  the  land  in  the 
Dark  Ages  were  merciless  and  terribly  cruel.  The  most 
horrible  tortures  imaginable  were  practiced.  One  writer 
says  that  there  were  fourteen  different  ways  of  inflicting 
torture,  some  of  which  were  many  degrees  worse  than  those 
practiced  by  the  American  Indians.  Men  were  hanged_ 
for  the  merest  trifles ;  and  they  were  hanged  in  such  ap- 
palling numbers,  that  the  gallows  was  seldom  allowed  to 
remain  long  out  of  use.  Evildoers  were  often  mangled 
and  their  bodies  torn  asunder.  Many  were  branded  with 
red-hot  irons  or  burned  at  the  stake  with  shocking 
cruelty. 

Criminals  Numerous.  —  Still  crime  raged  everywhere. 
These  tortures  and  hangings  only  made  the  people  savage 
and  bloodthirsty.  "  A  violent  ruffian  knew  if  he  robbed  a 
man  he  would  be  hanged,  and  that  if  he  murdered  him,  the 
punishment  could  be  no  worse.  He  had  nothing  to  gain 
by  letting  him  live,  and  nothing  to  lose,  if  he  cut  his  throat. 
Rather  than  be  captured,  he  might  as  well  make  a  good 
fight  and  kill  as  many  as  stood  in  his  way  of  escape." 

Church  Laws.  —  The  church  claimed  the  right  to  try  in 
its  own  courts  all  members  of  the  clergy,  no  matter  what 
their  crime  was;  and  the  punishments  inflicted  by  the 
church  courts  were  very  mild  and  lenient.  The  church 
taught  that  it  was  wrong  to  hurry  a  man  to  death  with  his 
sins  and  crimes  fresh  upon  him.  He  should  at  least  be 
given  time  to  repent.  Christ  had  been  a  noble  example  of 
forgiveness  and  mercy.     So  the  church  set  itself  against  the 


172     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

cruelties  and  wholesale  slaughter  of  evildoers ;  and  in  this 
way  it  helped  to  check  the  worst  of  the  punishments. 

Clerics.  — •  There  were  different  orders  among  the  clergy 
in  those  days ;  and  it  did  not  require  great  learning  to  be 
admitted  to  the  lowest  of  these  orders,  the  members  of 
which  were  called  clerics.  Some  wicked  men  sought  to 
become  clerics  in  order  to  obtain  the  right  to  a  trial  in  the 
church  with  lenient  punishments,  when  they  were  caught 
in  mischief. 

Hard  Lot  of  Serfs.  —  Excepting  the  nobles,  knights,  and 
clerics,  all  the  people  were  villains,  or  serfs.  Some  had  the 
use  of  more  land  than  others  and  more  rights,  perhaps,  but 
the  lot  of  all  was  miserable  enough.  A  man  or  woman 
born  in  villainage  could  never  shake  it  off.  They  might 
not  even  go  away  from  the  manor  where  they  were  born ; 
they  were  not  allowed  to  marry  without  the  lord's  license, 
and  for  this  they  had  to  pay.  Their  only  hope  of  freedom 
was  to  be  made  clerics,  for  clerics  were  always  free.  In  Eng- 
land a  serf  might  not  purchase  his  own  liberty,  but  a  son 
might  buy  his  father's  freedom,  and  this  meant  liberty  for 
the  whole  family.  If  a  serf  ran  away,  he  might  be  caught 
and  brought  back  like  a  common  slave,  but  in  later  times, 
if  he  escaped  to  a  town  and  lived  there  for  a  year  and  a  day, 
he  was  free.  So  the  towns  became  more  and  more  a  shelter 
for  the  run-away  villain  or  serf. 

Amusements.  —  The  lord  and  knights  of  the  castle  had 
many  amusements ;  in  fact  they  divided  their  time  between 
fighting  and  playing,  for  they  never  worked.  But  the  serfs 
had  very  little  leisure,  since  they  had  to  work  hard  to  feed 
and  clothe  the  lord  and  his  many  knights  of  the  castle. 
What  time  was  left  the  peasant,  he  must  use  to  keep  his 
own  family  from  starving.  Still  there  was  some  pleasure 
for  him,  for  he  occasionally  gave  chase  to  a  fox  or  a  rabbit, 


HOW  THE   PEOPLE   LIVED  173 

and  dug  it  from  its  burrow.  Wandering  minstrels  some- 
times came  to  the  villages  and,  with  rude  musical  instru- 
ments, sang  coarse  songs,  which  amused  the  people.  They 
cared  more  for  the  words  than  for  the  music.  The  working 
people  also  enjoyed  seeing  the  gay  nobles  and  knights 
passing  back  and  forth  between  castles  on  horseback. 
Occasionally  there  was  a  feast  in  the  village,  where  wrestling 
matches  took  place.  There  was  also  a  queer  combat  with 
sticks.  Two  men,  each  blindfolded  and  armed  with  a 
stick,  entered  the  arena  and  went  round  and  round  trying 
to  strike  a  fat  goose  or  a  pig,  which  was  let  loose  with  them. 
Most  of  the  blows  of  these  blindfolded  men  fell  on  each 
other,  amidst  the  shouts  of  laughter  from  the  spectators. 
Nothing  amused  our  ancestors  more  than  these  blind  com- 
bats. 

QUESTIONS 

Manor —  1.  What  was  the  manor?  2.  Give  other  names  for  it. 
3.  Describe  the  manor  house.  4.  Describe  the  houses  of  the  village 
and  the  furniture  in  them.  5.  What  occupations  did  the  people 
follow?  6.  Why  these?  7.  Who  owned  the  land?  8.  What  was 
peculiar  about  the  farms?  9.  What  difficulty  had  they  with  their 
cattle  ? 

Foods  —  10.  Give  the  kinds  of  foods  used.  11.  How  were  they 
preserved?  12.  How  cooked?  13.  What  effect  had  these  foods 
upon  their  health?  14.  How  did  they  make  their  drinks? 
15.  Describe  their  clothing.  16.  What  caused  such  awful  plagues? 
17.  What  laws  were  there ?  18.  Who  made  them?  19.  What  was 
the  effect  of  these  laws  ?  20.  In  what  way  did  many  people  escape 
punishment?  21.  How  did  the  church  influence  these  laws? 
22.  Who  were  the  clerks  ?  23.  Who  were  the  villains  ?  24.  What  is 
a  villain  to-day  ?  25.  Can  you  see  how  our  meaning  to-day  grew  out 
of  the  old  meaning  ?     26.   What  kind  of  life  did  the  serf  lead  ? 


CHAPTER   XIII 
COMMERCE   IN   THE   DARK   AGES 

Bad  Roads  and  Commerce.  —  During  the  Dark  Ages  the 
roads  were  so  bad  that  it  was  almost  impossible  to  transport 
goods  from  place  to  place  on  land.  The  roads  were  often 
mere  trails  through  the  woods  and  could  be  traversed  only 
on  horseback,  the  use  of  wagons  being  almost  out  of  the 
question.  Even  as  late  as  1300,  roads  continued  poor  in- 
deed, and  goods  were  still  generally  carried  on  the  backs  of 
animals.  It  took  four  horses  or  eight  oxen  to  drag  a  wagon 
through  the  mud  in  winter.  Nearly  everybody  traveled  on 
horseback  or  afoot. 

Water  Transportation.  —  There  were  few  bridges,  and 
travelers  had  to  ford  streams  on  horseback ;  or,  if  the  river 
was  too  deep,  a  clumsy  ferryboat  was  used.  It  was  much 
easier  to  transport  goods  by  water,  even  though  the  distance 
was  greater,  because  a  single  boat  could  carry  as  much  as 
could  five  hundred  pack  animals.  But  river  navigation 
was  often  hindered  by  mill  dams  and  nshweirs. 

Robbers.  —  Merchants,  however,  suffered  more  from  bad 
men  than  from  bad  roads.  Robbers  were  so  common  that 
all  strangers  had  to  be  watched.  There  was  an  old  English 
law  that  read,  "  If  a  man  come  from  afar,  or  a  stranger  go 
out  of  the  highway,  and  he  then  neither  shout  nor  blow  a 
horn,  he  is  to  be  accounted  a  thief,  either  to  be  slain  or  to 
be  redeemed."  So  great  was  the  danger  from  robbers  that 
merchants  were  forced  to  go  in  company  with  others,  all 
being  well-armed. 

174 


COMMERCE   IN   THE   DARK   AGES 


175 


Robber  Barons.  —  The  numerous  feudal  lords  were  also 
a  great  hindrance  to  trade,  because  they  frequently  sheltered 
outlaws  and  robber  knights  in  return  for  a  share  of  the 
plunder.     Sometimes  the  lords,  themselves,  turned  robbers. 


A  Ship  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Tolls.  —  All  the  feudal  lords  tried  to  enrich  themselves 
by  taxing  the  merchants  who  passed  through  their  lands. 
Such  taxes  were  called  tolls,  and  were  levied  everywhere 
on  all  kinds  of  goods.  "  Even  an  organ  grinder  could  not 
pass  the  gates  of  Paris  without  making  his  monkey  show 
off  to  pay  his  own  way."  Everywhere  along  routes  of  com- 
merce were  monasteries  and  castles,  and  each  was  a  toll 
station  where  the  merchant. must  stop  and  pay  a  tax  on  his 


176     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

wares.  In  the  fourteenth  century  there  were  seventy-four 
toll  stations  along  the  Loire  River  in  France.  One  merchant 
shipped  some  cloth  from  Paris  to  the  East.  He  stopped 
at  every  station  and  paid  his  tax.  By  accident  the  cloth 
was  wet  and  had  to  be  sent  back  to  Paris  to  be  redyed, 
and  everywhere  along  the  road  the  merchant  had  to  pay 
the  tolls  again. 

Why  Tolls  were  Paid.  —  For  all  these  taxes  the  merchant 
got  nothing  in  return  except  the  right  to  look  out  for  him- 
self. The  tolls  were  supposed  to  pay  the  lord  to  protect  the 
merchant  and  to  take  care  of  the  roads  and  bridges ;  but 
the  feudal  lords  pocketed  the  money  and  did  nothing  in 
return.  After  a  time  the  lords  even  refused  to  allow  new 
and  better  roads  to  be  built,  for  fear  the  merchants  would 
quit  using  the  old  roads  that  were  lining  their  pockets  with 
gold.  "  A  man  had  to  pay  toll,  not  only  when  he  went  over 
a  bridge ;  "he  had  to  pay  toll  when  he  went  under  it,  and 
could  not  escape  the  toll  by  going  around  it."  When  such 
taxes  were  added  to  the  cost  of  wares,  they  made  the  price 
of  the  goods  so  high  that  the  merchant  often  could  not 
sell  them  for  what  they  cost  him,  and  thus  many  were 
driven  out  of  business  by  these  never  ending  tax  stations. 

Loss  of  Time.  —  Besides  loss  in  money  there  was  loss  of 
time  in  having  to  stop  and  unpack  goods  at  each  station. 
Many  times  this  caused  the  merchant  to  reach  his  market 
too  late.  "  The  monks  of  a  certain  monastery  near  Paris 
took  three  pennyworths  from  each  horseload  that  passed  by, 
and  on  fast  days  they  spent  so  much  time  in  selecting  their 
fish  that  the  rest  of  the  load  spoiled  before  it  reached  Paris." 

Money  Scarce.  —  There  was  also  very  little  money  in 
use,  and  this  caused  many  hardships  to  the  merchant,  who 
had  to  barter  or  exchange  one  ware  for  another,  when  he 
would  have  much  preferred  money  to  the  article  received. 


COMMERCE   IN   THE   DARK  AGES  177 

Not  only  was  money  scarce,  but  there  were  many  different 
kinds.  Every  petty  lord  had  his  own  money  coined  for 
his  little  fief.  Traders  found  much  false  money  and  many 
coins  short  in  weight. 

Trade  Grows.  —  However,  in  spite  of  bad  roads  and 
robber  barons,  in  spite  of  tolls  and  bad  money,  or  none  at 
all,  commerce  grew  slowly  and  became  a  little  safer  after 
the  year  1000.  Then  some  of  the  villages,  because  of  their 
trade,  begn  to  grow  into  towns,  with  several  hundred,  or 
even  several  thousand  people. 

Serfs  Obtain  Freedom  or  Rights.  —  Since  the  people  in 
towns  were  all  free,  there  was  a  strong  temptation  to  serfs 
to  run  away  from  their  lords  on  the  manors  and  to  flock  into 
the  towns,  where  they  became  free  after  a  year.  The  lords 
of  the  manors  and  fiefs  were  fast  losing  their  workers,  so 
they  were  compelled  to  give  their  serfs  better  treatment  in 
order  to  keep  any  of  them.  Thus  the  serfs  came  to  have 
some  rights. 

Where  Towns  Grew.  —  Since  towns  could  not  thrive 
without  peace  and  protection,  they  often  grew  up  near  a 
great  castle  or  monastery,  where  the  strong  hand  of  a  lord 
or  abbot  afforded  them  shelter.  We  find  the  largest  towns 
springing  up  mainly  along  some  line  of  travel,  on  a  river 
or  by  a  good  harbor  on  the  sea  coast,  where  merchants  were 
able  to  reach  them  safely  with  goods.  Wherever  merchants 
were  likely  to  stop  on  their  journey  and  exchange  wares, 
as  at  a  ford  or  a  bridge  or  a  ferry,  was  also  a  place  for  a 
town  to  grow.  We  still  have  towns  named  after  such 
places  as  Ox-ford  and  Cam-bridge. 

Still  Like  Villages.  —  While  the  towns  were  different 
from  villages,  yet  they  had  grown  from  villages  and  kept 
many  village  features.  Most  of  the  townspeople  owned  some 
land  which  they  used  for  gardens,  and  outside  each  town 


178     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

was  considerable  plow  and  pasture  land,  which  was  largely 
owned  and  worked  by  people  of  the  town.  The  towns 
were  not  large.  First-class  towns  of  those  times  had,  on  an 
average,  not  more  than  five  thousand  people,  while  very 
few  had  so  many  as  ten  thousand. 

Appearance  of  Towns.  —  The  streets  were  narrow  and 
crooked,    having    been    built  along    trails.     Some    of  the 


ZK. 


An  Old  Street  in  Worcester. 

greatest  streets  of  London  are  said  to  have  been  built 
along  cowpaths.  Streets  were  not  paved,  and  all  kinds 
of  filth  and  garbage  were  piled  in  them.  This  is  perhaps 
why  the  people  wore  wooden  overshoes  when  they  went 
out.  All  houses  were  of  wood.  Fires  were  frequent  and 
very  destructive,  for  there  was  neither  city  water  nor  a 
fire  department.  Wares  were  exposed  for  sale,  either  in 
the  open  market  place,  or  in  a  little  shop  like  a  peddler's 
booth  at  the  front  of  the  house.  There  was  no  police  pro- 
tection, and  towns  were  sinks  of  crime  as  well  as  of  disease. 


COMMERCE   IN   THE   DARK  AGES  179 

Labor  Began  to  be  Divided.  —  It  was  impossible  for  a 
shoemaker  to  sell  more  than  two  or  three  dozen  pairs  of 
shoes  a  year  in  a  village,  because  there  were  so  few  people 
near  by.  So  he  had  to  support  his  family  partly  by  farming. 
But  as  the  population  grew  from  a  village  to  a  town,  one 
man  could  sell  enough  shoes  to  keep  him  busy.  Another 
was  kept  occupied  as  a  blacksmith  or  a  carpenter  ;  and  many 
others  were  employed  as  weavers,  dyers,  and  tailors.  Then 
there  came  to  be  expert  workmen  with  better  tools.  A  man 
who  spent  all  his  time  at  one  kind  of  work  could  make 
better  goods  and  more  of  them.  The  comforts  and  con- 
veniences of  life  became  cheaper. 

Different  Crafts.  — As  the  towns  grew,  the  work  of  life 
was  divided  more  and  more,  and  the  different  kinds  of 
skilled  workmen  increased.  Butchers,  brewers,  and  bakers 
were  kept  busy  feeding  the  people,  while  the  need  of  clothing 
called  for  tanners,  furriers,  and  tailors.  People  must  have 
houses  and  furniture,  too ;  so  there  was  a  demand  for 
bricklayers,  masons,  carpenters,  and  cabinet  makers.  Still 
others  made  tools  and  wagons,  or  saddles  and  harnesses. 
The  coppersmiths  of  those  days  become  the  tinners  of  our 
time.  It  was  the  work  of  fullers  to  improve  the  texture  of 
cloth  after  it  had  been  woven,  by  beating  and  washing  it 
with  fuller's  earth,  a  kind  of  clay  that  absorbs  the  grease 
from  the  wool. 

Craft  Guilds.  —  The  men  who  lived  by  these  crafts  be- 
came organized  in  craft  guilds,  or  societies,  which  were 
somewhat  like  our  labor  unions  to-day.  Every  trade  had 
its  guild  composed  of  the  workers  of  that  trade.  There  was 
a  weaver's  guild,  a  baker's  guild,  guilds  for  shoemakers, 
tanners,  coopers,  and  so  on.  In  one  city  there  might  be 
fifty  or  more  of  such  unions.  Each  brotherhood  of  workers 
had  its  guild  hall,  where  the  men  of  the  craft  met  to  make 


180     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

the  rules  governing  the  members,  and  for  banquets  and  other 
social  events.  No  citizen  of  the  town  could  make  or  sell 
any  kind  of  goods  unless  he  belonged  to  the  proper  guild. 
Neither  could  a  man  come  into  a  town  from  other  cities 
or  countries  and  sell,  without  special  permission  from  the 
guild.  Each  guild  had  three  classes  of  members  :  the  masters, 
journeymen,  and  apprentices. 

Apprentices.  — When  a  boy  wished  to  become  a  carpenter, 
a  blacksmith,  or  a  skilled  worker  of  any  kind,  he  bound  him- 
self to  a  master  of  that  craft  as  an  apprentice.  He  was  re- 
quired to  serve  him  without  pay  for  a  term  of  three,  seven, 
or  ten  years,  according  to  the  law  of  the  guild.  The  mas- 
ter furnished  him  food  and  clothing  and  taught  him  the 
trade. 

Journeymen  and  Master  Workmen.  —  After  his  appren- 
ticeship he  became  a  free  journeyman  with  the  right  to  go 
anywhere  and  practice  his  craft  for  pay,  but  still  under  some 
master.  The  journeyman  often  traveled  about  for  a  few 
years  among  different  cities,  working  and  seeing  the  world. 
When  at  last  he  had  proven  his  skill  in  the  trade  by  some 
"  masterpiece  "  fine  enough  to  be  accepted  by  the  craft 
guild,  he  became  a  master  workman.  Then  he  might  own 
a  shop,  which  was  usually  a  part  of  his  dwelling,  and  employ 
journeymen,  or  take  apprentices.  As  a  master  he  continued 
to  work  with  his  hands  among  the  journeymen  and  appren- 
tices of  his  shop. 

The  Object  of  Guilds.  —  The  guilds  had  several  objects. 
They  fixed  the  prices  of  the  products  that  they  made,  and 
no  member  might  cut  prices,  nor  was  any  one  allowed  to 
sell  goods  except  at  the  appointed  times  and  places.  No 
master  was  allowed  to  buy  cheaper  raw  materials  than  his 
fellows.  So  they  had  a  rule  that  any  member  had  a  right 
to  share  in  the  purchase  of  another  by  paying  his  portion. 


COMMERCE   IN  THE  DARK   AGES  181 

If  a  master  weaver  bought  wool  very  cheap,  he  was  re- 
quired to  share  his  purchase  at  the  same  price  with  any 
brother  who  desired  it.  Thus  there  was  no  competition 
in  either  buying  or  selling.  Strict  rules  were  made  to 
keep  up  the  quality  and  to  regulate  the  size  and  weight  of 
goods.  The  guild  was  a  great  help  to  its  members.  When 
a  member  became  poor  or  ill,  he  was  given  assistance.  If 
he  died  in  poverty,  his  funeral  expenses  were  paid,  and  his 
family  was  not  allowed  to  suffer. 

How  Guilds  Served  the  People. — The  rules  of  the  guilds 
were  strict.  If  an  article  was  not  made  according  to  their 
rules,  it  was  called  "  false."  For  such  "  false  work  "  mem- 
bers were  fined.  One  half  of  the  fine  money  went  to  the 
town  and  the  rest  to  the  guild.  If  a  member  continued 
his  "  false  work  "  and  was  caught  the  fourth  time,  he  was 
expelled  from  the  guild.  Fines  were  imposed  also  for  put- 
ting better  goods  at  the  top  of  a  bale  or  basket  than  below, 
for  moistening  groceries  to  make  them  weigh  heavier,  for 
selling  second-hand  furs  for  new,  for  soldering  broken 
swords,  for  selling  sheep  leather  for  doe  leather,  and  for 
mixing  poor  wool  with  good.  There  were  fines  for  all  kinds 
of  dishonesty  in  work  and  business. 

Labor  and  Capital.  —  The  guilds  were  unlike  our  labor 
unions  in  this,  that  both  laborers  and  employers  belonged 
to  them.  There  was  always  a  friendly  spirit  between  the 
workers  and  the  owners  of  the  shops,  for  both  had  a  voice 
in  fixing  the  wages  of  labor  as  well  as  the  price  at  which 
goods  were  to  be  sold.  Thus  there  was  no  such  thing  as 
a  strike  or  a  lockout.  The  man  with  money  to  use,  and 
the  man  with  labor  to  sell,  joined  hands  to  get  the  best 
market  for  both.  Such  good  feeling  is  sadly  needed  to- 
day. Laborers  then  took  a  deeper  interest  in  their  craft, 
and  they  turned  out  high-class  products  of  which  they  might 


1 82     DAWN  OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 


COMMERCE   IN    THE   DARK  AGES  183 

well  feel  proud.  There  was  a  high  sense  of  honor  and 
honesty  in  good  work  that  the  world  misses  now. 

Merchants'  Guilds.  —  Merchants  had  formed  guilds  for 
their  protection  long  before  the  craftsmen  did.  Their 
guilds  came  about  in  this  way.  The  dangers  from  the 
robbers  and  outlaws  forced  them  to  form  bands  when  they 
went  on  journeys,  like  the  caravans  of  to-day  in  countries 
of  the  East.  They  made  such  rules  as  these:  Every  one 
was  obliged  to  carry  armor,  a  bow  and  twelve  arrows,  on 
penalty  of  a  fine.  They  must  stand  by  to  help  one  another 
when  they  set  out  upon  a  journey.  In  case  one  member 
had  not  sold  his  wares,  the  others  must  wait  for  him  one  day. 
If  one  was  imprisoned,  the  others  must  ransom  him.  These 
bands  of  traders  grew  into  merchants'  guilds,  or  unions, 
which  came  to  be  a  part  of  town  government,  and  the  town 
used  the  guilds  in  pushing  its  trade  against  its  rival  towns. 

Rights  of  Trade  Guilds.  —  To  these  trade  guilds  belonged 
all  merchants,  butchers,  and  fishermen.  They  had  the 
exclusive  right  of  trading  within  the  town.  Merchants 
from  other  towns  might  bring  in  goods  and  sell  them  whole- 
sale, but  they  were  forbidden  to  keep  shop  and  sell  at  retail. 
The  government  of  the  town  was  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
the  guilds,  and  there  was  often  great  strife  between  the  mer- 
chants' or  trade  guilds,  and  the  craft  guilds.  Sometimes 
bloodshed  resulted.  The  unskilled,  or  common  workers, 
had  no  voice  in  the  town  governments. 

Laws  About  Trade. — The  only  way  to  be  sure  that 
strange  traders  had  not  stolen  their  goods  was  to  require 
witnesses  to  be  present  when  bargains  or  trades  were  made. 
In  this  way  merchants  could  prove  that  they  had  come 
honestly  by  their  wares.  Cattle  and  swine  were,  in  those 
dark  times,  the  chief  riches  of  men,  and  they  could  easily  be 
stolen ;  strict  laws  were  made  stating  where  and  when  cattle 


1 84     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 


COMMERCE   IN   THE   DARK   AGES  185 

could  be  bought  or  sold.  If  a  merchant  could  not  prove 
that  he  had  purchased  his  cattle  or  goods,  he  was  treated 
as  a  thief.     Such  laws  were  a  great  help  to  honest  dealers. 

The  Market.  —  Another  advantage  given  to  town  mer- 
chants was  that  of  a  market.  The  townspeople  would  not 
allow  traders  or  farmers  to  come  to  town  singly  and  sell  their 
produce,  because  they  might  charge  too  much  for  it,  or  they 
might  take  all  business  from  the  town  shopkeepers.  So 
the  towns  established  certain  days  called  market  days, 
perhaps  one  or  two  a  week,  and  a  certain  market  place ;  and 
all  country  people  with  articles  to  dispose  of  were  required 
to  sell  only  on  market  day  and  at  the  market  place.  They 
even  tried  to  force  farmers  to  sell  out  before  the  market 
closed.  This  plan,  it  was  believed,  would  keep  prices  low. 
After  the  families  had  purchased  enough  for  their  needs, 
shopkeepers  were  allowed  to  buy  goods  to  retail  from  their 
shops  during  the  rest  of  the  week. 

Import  Taxes.  —  Each  town  made  such  laws  about  trade 
as  would  give  the  home  people  the  advantage  over  those 
from  other  towns.  They  taxed  all  goods  brought  in.  One 
of  London's  laws  was:  "  Every  load  of  poultry  that  comes 
upon  a  horse  shall  pay  three  farthings."  Sometimes  when 
a  certain  article  was  scarce  and  dear,  the  town  tried  to 
prevent  such  goods  from  being  shipped  away  by  placing  on 
them  a  tax  called  an  export  tax.  Or  they  made  such  trade 
unlawful.  Thus,  "  No  butcher,  or  wife  of  a  butcher,  shall 
sell  tallow  or  lard  to  a  strange  person  for  carrying  to  the 
parts  beyond  the  sea ;  by  reason  of  the  great  dearness  and 
scarcity  that  has  been  thereof  in  the  city  of  late." 

Fairs.  —  In  addition  to  their  market  days  once  or  twice 
a  week,  the  towns  had  fairs,  which  occurred  once  a  year,  and 
sometimes  oftener.  To  these  fairs,  traders  and  merchants 
came  long  distances,  even  from  other  countries.     The  fair 


1 86     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

grew  up  under  the  protection  of  some  feudal  lord  or  abbot,  or 
possibly  a  bishop,  who.  was  to  have  the  taxes  collected  here. 
The  fairs  were  usually  held  just  outside  the  town  limits  in  an 
open  field.  The  owner  of  the  fair  built  wooden  booths  or 
stalls  in  long  rows,  and,  as  the  merchants  came,  they  were 
given  places  according  to  the  country  that  they  came  from, 
or  the  kind  of  goods  that  they  had  to  sell.  While  the  fair 
was  going  on,  all  buying  and  selling  was  forbidden  in  the 
near-by  towns.  Tolls  were  collected  for  the  lord  on  all 
goods  brought  in  or  taken  out  of  the  grounds.  Rent  was 
also  paid  for  the  booths  and  for  the  use  of  the  lord's  weights 
and  scales.  A  court  was  held  on  the  grounds  to  settle  dis- 
putes and  to  enforce  honest  dealing. 

Fairs  Encourage  Social  Life. — People  came  to  these 
fairs  for  pleasure  as  well  as  for  business.  There  were  "  side 
shows  "  of  all  kinds  —  wild  animals,  trained  dogs,  musicians, 
actors  and  clowns,  dancing  and  gambling  halls.  "  There  was 
a  chance  to  turn  a  penny  dishonestly  as  well  as  honestly." 
They  often  lasted  several  weeks,  and  then  the  merchants 
packed  up  and  trudged  away  to  some  other  fair.  At  last 
the  greedy  owners  taxed  the  merchants  who  came  so  heavily 
that  they  could  make  no  profit ;  and  so  fairs  grew  smaller 
and  fewer  and  finally  died  out  altogether. 


QUESTIONS 

Commerce  —  i.  Why  was  there  so  little  trade?  2.  Discuss  land 
travel.  3.  Discuss  water  transportation."  4.  Why  were  there  so 
many  robbers?  5.  Where  were  tolls  paid?  6.  Why?  7.  How 
did  these  tolls  affect  the  price  of  goods  ?  8.  Why  ?  9.  What  was 
paid  for  goods  ?  10.  Describe  the  towns  —  where  did  they  spring 
up?  11.  Why?  12.  What  is  the  meaning  of  " Labor  began  to  be 
divided"?  13.  What  was  gained  by  it  ?  14.  Was  anything  lost  ?■ 
1^..:  What  were  the:  craft  .guilds?     16.  ..Who  belonged?     17.   What 


COMMERCE   IN   THE   DARK  AGES  187 

rights  had  these  guilds ?  18.  What  laws  were  made  about  trade? 
19.  Why?  20.  Describe  the  market  place.  21.  Describe  the 
market  day.  22.  Of  what  value  was  this  market?  23.  What  are 
export  and  import  duties?  24.  Why  are  they  laid?  25.  Do  we 
have  them  to-day  ?  26.  Who  really  pays  an  import  duty  ?  27.  Who 
planned  the  fairs  ?  28.  Why  ?  29.  What  business  was  done  there  ? 
30.  What  pleasures  were  there?  31.  What  good  came  from 
them? 


CHAPTER  XIV 
MOHAMMED   AND   THE   MOORS 

The  Early  Arabs.  —  About  a  century  after  Clovis  built 
up  the  empire  of  the  Franks,  and  while  Augustine  was 
preaching  to  the  Saxons  in  Britain,  there  was  growing  up  a 
strange,  new  kingdom  in  the  deserts  of  Arabia.  Hitherto 
the  Arabs  had  never  come  much  into  public  notice.  Their 
ignorant  and  scattered  tribes  were  usually  busy  making 
war  on  one  another.  They  were  heathen,  each  tribe  having 
its  own  idols. 

A  New  Prophet.  —  But  now  a  great  man  arose  among 
them  —  Mohammed,  who  was  to  do  wonderful  things  for 
his  people.  Mohammed  was  born  at  Mecca,  the  chief 
city  of  the  desert  country.  He  was  of  noble  family,  but  he 
early  became  penniless.  In  his  youth  he  was  a  shepherd, 
watching  the  flocks  by  night  as  did  Moses  and  Abraham. 
Later  he  entered  the  service  of  a  wealthy  widow  as  camel 
driver  and  led  caravans  across  the  desert  for  trade.  He 
proved  to  be  a  shrewd  merchant  and  became  wealthy.  Later 
he  married  his  employer.  As  he  traveled  into  Palestine 
and  elsewhere  to  trade  he  saw  much  of  the  Christian  civiliza- 
tion of  other  countries  and  he  resolved  to  raise  his  people 
above  their  idols. 

Mohammed's  Vision.  —  He  claimed  that  the  angel 
Gabriel  appeared  while  he  was  once  praying  in  the  desert, 
and  revealed  to  him  a  new  and  higher  religion.  This  new 
religion  taught  that  there  is  but  one  God,  and  that  Moham- 
med is  His  prophet.     Many  of  the  better  teachings  of  this 

188 


MOHAMMED   AND   THE   MOORS  189 

new  faith  were  drawn  from  the  religion  of  the  Christian 
and  the  Jew.  It  taught  that  Abraham,  Moses,  and  Christ 
were  true  prophets,  but  that  Mohammed  was  the  last  and 
greatest  of  them  all.  The  Mohammedan  religion  was 
called  Islam.  It  had  no  priests  nor  showy  forms  of  worship. 
Five  times  a  day  the  faithful  must  pray,  always  with  their 
faces  turned  toward  Mecca.     During  one  month  of   the 


Camels  of  the  Desert. 

year  they  must  fast ;  and  all  who  could  must  make  a  pil- 
grimage to  Mecca,  the  birthplace  of  Mohammed. 

The  Koran. — From  time  to  time  Mohammed  had  dreams 
and  visions  in  which  more  and  more  of  the  "Heavenly 
Book"  was  revealed  to  him.  This  he  taught  to  his 
followers,  who  treasured  it  in  their  hearts.  Sometimes  they 
wrote  it  down  upon  pieces  of  pottery,  or  upon  the  shoulder 
bones  of  sheep  or  upon  palm  leaves.  Mohammed  never 
learned  to  read  or  write,  but  after  his  death  his  teachings 
were  gathered  into  a  book  called  the  Koran,  which  became 
the  Mohammedan  Bible. 

The  Arabs  and  the  New  Faith.  —  Although  Mohammed 
could  not  read  he  was  a  wise  man.  He  was  a  fluent  speaker 
and  preacher  —  a  man  born  to  lead  and  to   rule.     His 


igo    DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

wife  believed  in  his  visions  at  once,  and  his  friends  quickly 
accepted  his  teachings.  But  his  neighbors,  the  people  of 
Mecca,  jeered  and  scoffed  at  him.  "  Who  are  you?  "  they 
asked,  "  to  teach  a  new  religion?  We  have  known  you 
from  your  cradle,  and  you  are  no  wiser  than  the  rest  of 
us."  At  last  they  plotted  to  kill  him.  Hearing  this, 
Mohammed  fled  from  Mecca  in  the  year  622.    His  followers 


A  Barren  Desert. 

called  this  year  the  year  1,  and  have  since  reckoned  time 
from  it,  as  we  do  from  the  birth  of  Christ. 

Taking  up  the  Sword.  —  Mohammed's  teachings  did 
not  spread  very  fast  by  mere  preaching,  so  he  now  took  up 
the  sword.  By  going  on  the  warpath  he  not  only  pro- 
tected himself,  but  gave  his  followers  a  purpose — something 
to  do,  which  he  thought  would  unite  them  and  arouse  their 
enthusiasm.  "  The  sword,"  said  he,  "  is  the  key  of  heaven. 
A  drop  of  blood  shed  in  the  cause  of  God  is  of  more  avail 


MOHAMMED   AND   THE   MOORS 


191 


than  two  months  of  prayer  and  fasting :  whoso  falls  in 
battle,  all  his  sins  are  forgiven ;  at  the  day  of  judgment  his 
wounds  shall  make  him  glorious."  The  Arabs  knew  no 
such  word  as  fear.  They  took  up  the  sword  eagerly, 
rejoicing  in  death  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  so  fiercely  did 
they  fight  that  they  carried  all  before  them.  They  soon 
captured  Mecca,  which  became  their  sacred  city ;  and  in  a 
few  years  all  the  people  of  this  desert  country  were  followers 
of  Islam. 

The  Califs  Spread  the  Faith.  —  Mohammed  lived  only 
ten  years  after  his  flight  from  Mecca,  but  his  teachings  had 
set  the  people  upon  a  higher  plane  of  living  than  they  had 
ever  known,  and  had  started  them  on  a  world-wide  crusade 
to  spread  their  religion  by  the  sword.  At  the  death  of  the 
Apostle,  his  successor,  who  was  given  the  title  of  Calif, 
continued  to  extend  the  rule  of  the  Arabs  to  the  north  and 
the  east.  Palestine  was  for  the  Mohammedans,  as  it  was  for 
the  Hebrews,  a  land  of  promise,  flowing  with  milk  and  honey, 
and  after  a  few  years,  Calif  Omar  set  out  for  Jerusalem.  No 
nation  of  the  East  was  able  to  withstand  the  fierce  courage 
and  zeal  of  the  Arabs,  and  Jerusalem  soon  opened  its  gates 
to  Omar,  who  rode  into  the  sacred  city  upon  a  camel,  carrying 
with  him  a  bag  of  dates  and  skin  of  water,  which  supplied 
all  his  needs. 

The  Mosque  of  Omar.  —  The  Arabs  respected  the  Chris- 
tians and  allowed  them  to  continue  in  their  faith,  but 
they  were  required  to  pay  tribute  to  the  rulers  of  Islam. 
Jerusalem  was  not  destroyed  because  it  was  already  holy 
ground  for  the  Arabs.  On  the  site  of  the  Temple  of 
Solomon  Omar  built  a  magnificent  church,  which  was 
called  later  the  Mosque  of  Omar. 

Spreading  the  Greek  Civilization.  —  All  Syria  soon  fell 
into  the  power  of  the  Arabs,  for  the  emperor  of  Constanti- 


IQ2    DAWN   OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

nople  was  helpless  before  their  fiery  enthusiasm.  The  Arab 
readily  adopted  all  the  best  things  of  the  Greek  civilization. 
All  the  books  of  Greek  learning  were  translated  into  Arabic. 
Greek  knowledge  of  art  and  architecture,  of  the  weaving  of 
fine  cloths,  and  other  crafts,  of  agriculture,  —  all  that  was 
good  the  Arabs  carried  with  them  in  their  journey  through 
Egypt  and  to  the  west,  for  they  now  turned  their  steps  west- 


Jerusalem  as  it  Appears  To-day. 

ward,  and  before  many  years  they  had  overrun  all  northern 
Africa. 

The  Moors  Cross  the  Straits.  —  The  Straits  of  Gibraltar 
did  not  check  them.  In  the  year  711  an  army  of  Moham- 
medan Moors  crossed  into  Spain. 

Workers  Mistreated.  —  The  people  of  Spain  were  not 
loyal  to  their  Gothic  king  and  nobles.  These  German 
overlords  had  never  mixed  with  the  common  people,  but 


MOHAMMED   AND   THE   MOORS  193 

had  held  themselves  above  the  workers,  treating  them  as 
slaves.  So  now  the  great  body  of  common  people  were  un- 
willing to  fight  for  their  king.  They  were  glad  to  change 
their  masters  because  they  thought  things  could  not  be 
much  worse  for  them. 

The  Jews  Dissatisfied.  —  There  were  also  in  Spain  many 
Jews,  who  were  the  wealthiest  and  most  intelligent  people 
of  the  cities.  They  had  often  been  persecuted  and  robbed 
by  the  Gothic  nobles,  so  they,  too,  were  anxious  to  turn 
Spain  over  to  the  Moors,  who  belonged  to  their  own  race. 
Under  the  Moors,  the  Jews  had  reason  to  expect  better 
treatment  and  more  power. 

The  Moors  Victorious.  —  So  the  Gothic  king,  Roderick, 
and  his  nobles  were  forced  to  fight  the  Arabs  and  the  Moors 
alone,  and  they  were  too  few  to  hold  their  ground.  The 
Moors  fought  desperately.  For  them,  defeat  would  have 
meant  death,  as  they  could  not  retreat  with  the  straits  at 
their  back.  The  Goths  were  routed  and  Roderick  was  slain. 
The  great  cities  of  Spain  yielded  without  a  blow,  and  the 
country  was  abandoned  to  the  Arabs  and  Moors.  It  was 
an  easy  victory.  The  Goths  were  driven  into  the  Pyrenees 
Mountains,  and  remained  here,  holding  their  country  so 
firmly  by  its  borderland  that  they  never  were  driven  out. 
The  Moors  passed  on  into  France,  where  they  were  beaten 
by  the  Franks  and  their  advance  was  checked. 

Moorish  Cities.  —  In  Spain  the  Moors  began  a  brilliant 
career.  Large  numbers  came  from  Africa  to  settle  here. 
The  Emirs,  as  the  Moorish  rulers  were  called,  showed  them- 
selves far  above  the  Christian  princes  of  Europe  in  culture 
and  civilization.  Cordova  became  their  capital.  It  soon 
boasted  of  two  hundred  thousand  houses  and  more  than  a 
million  people.  The  streets  were  made  straight;  and  it 
was  said,  a  man  might  walk  through  the  city  after  dark  for 


194    DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

ten  miles  in  one  direction  by  the  light  of  public  lamps.  Even 
seven  hundred  years  later,  there  was  not  one  public  street 
light  in  London.  Cordova  streets  were  paved  and  clean, 
while  for  centuries  still  to  come  whoever  stepped  into  the 
streets  of  Paris  on  a  rainy  day  sank  to  his  ankles  in  mud. 


The  Court  of  Lions,  Alhambra. 

There  were  other  large  cities  of  the  Moors  as  splendid  as 
Cordova  —  Granada,  Seville,  and  Toledo. 

The  Calif's  Palace.  —  The  Mohammedans  had  brought 
with  them  the  civilization  and  luxuries  of  Asia.  The  Calif's 
palace  at  Cordova  was  of  polished  marble.     The  ceilings 


MOHAMMED   AND   THE   MOORS  195 

were  of  stained  glass  speckled  with  gold.  The  floors  were  of 
beautiful  mosaics,  and  the  walls  were  covered  with  splendid 
paintings  representing  views  of  Paradise.  From  the  ceilings 
hung  great  chandeliers,  one  of  which  held  nearly  two  thou- 
sand lamps.  There  were  marble  columns,  fountains,  and 
flower  gardens.  The  courts  for  children  to  play  in  were  of 
marble.  In  winter  the  rooms  of  the  palace  were  hung  with 
rich  tapestry  and  the  floors  were  covered  with  Persian  car- 
pets. The  buildings  were  supplied  by  metal  pipes  with  hot 
and  cold  water  for  the  marble  baths.  The  Calif's  library 
was  very  great  and  grand.  The  catalogue  alone  filled  forty 
volumes.  There  were  rooms  for  copying,  because  printing 
had  not  yet  been  invented;  also  rooms  for  binding  and 
ornamenting  books. 

How  Christian  Rulers  Lived.  —  Such  was  the  palace 
of  the  Arabs  of  Spain,  while  the  rulers  of  England,  France, 
and  Germany  were  still  living  in  dwellings  scarcely  better 
than  stables,  without  windows,  and  with  a  hole  in  the  roof 
for  smoke  to  go  out,  like  Indian  wigwams.  Their  castles 
were  dark  and  gloomy  and  had  but  few  comforts. 

Moorish  Parks.  —  The  Moors  had  pleasure  gardens  where 
they  raised  flowers  and  fruits.  They  brought  the  peach 
and  other  fruits  from  the  East.  They  made  artificial  lakes, 
where  they  raised  fish  for  the  table.  They  had  a  "  zoo," 
in  which  many  strange  animals  were  to  be  seen. 

How  They  Dressed.  —  While  the  people  of  France,  Eng- 
land, and  Germany  were  still  clothing  themselves  in  skins 
or  rude  cloth,  the  Moors  had  skilled  workmen  weaving  silk, 
cotton,  linen,  and  all  the  wonders  of  the  loom.  The  Moorish 
women  loved  finery.  Frequently  their  outer  garments  were 
of  silk,  embroidered  and  decorated  with  gems  and  woven 
gold.  "  So  fond  were  the  Moorish  women  of  gay  colors  and 
precious  stones  that,  it  is  said,  the  interior  of  any  building 


196    DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

where  they  were  permitted  to  appear  looked  like  a  flower 
garden  in  the  spring  besprinkled  with  rain." 

Schools  and  Learning.  —  The  Spanish  Califs  encouraged 
schools  and  learning.  Their  great  universities  were  rilled 
with  students  from  all  over  Europe.  The  Califs  themselves 
were  noted  scholars,  and  one,  at  least,  was  the  author  of 
many  books.  Some  learned  men  wrote  on  Algebra,  some 
concerning  Astronomy,  others  composed  music.  They  even 
had  a  college  of  music  with  famous  professors.  Their 
music  and  poetry,  especially  their  love  songs,  were  later 
carried  over  the  Pyrenees,  and  formed  the  beginning  of 
poetry  and  literature  in  France  and  in  other  countries. 
The  wandering  minstrels  of  Europe  copied  their  music  and 
poetry  from  the  Moors  of  Spain. 

Schools.  —  Every  town  had  its  library,  and  every  mosque 
its  public  school,  in  which  the  children  of  the  poor  were 
taught  to  read  and  write  and  were  instructed  in  the  Koran 
as  our  children  are  in  the  Bible.  There  were  academies  for 
those  who  were  well-to-do.  In  their  universities  the  Arabs 
studied  botany,  which  is  a  knowledge  of  plants,  astronomy, 
or  the  knowledge  of  stars,  and  chemistry,  which  they  used 
in  medicine,  for  they  had  schools  for  doctors  and  surgeons. 
Their  skillful  surgeons  used  the  knife  in  operations  without 
any  hesitation.  While  the  Christian  peasant,  who  was 
fever-stricken  or  overtaken  by  an  accident,  was  hurried 
to  the  nearest  saint  shrine,  where  he  expected  to  be  cured 
by  heaven,  the  Spanish  Moor  relied  on  a  prescription,  or 
on  the  knife  and  bandage  of  a  surgeon. 

We  Use  Their  Arithmetic  To-day.  —  From  India  the 
Arabs  learned  Arithmetic,  especially  the  nine  digits : 
i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  and  to  these  the  Arabs  added  the  o. 
Europe  was  still  using  the  old  Roman  numerals  such  as  XIX. 
What  a  dreadful  task  it  must  have  been  to  add  or  subtract 


MOHAMMED   AND   THE   MOORS  197 

these  numerals !  But  worse  still,  think  of  a  problem  in 
long  division  or  in  fractions.  How  they  must  have  toiled, 
to  multiply  MDCCCVII  by  XLIX !  Indeed  it  was  such 
a  task  that  they  called  these  Roman  numerals  the  "  sweat- 
ing calculators."  As  soon  as  the  merchants  of  Italy 
learned  how  much  better  the  Arabic  numbers  were,  they 


Arabian  Horses. 

took  them  up,  and  the  old  ones  largely  went  out  of  use  in 
business. 

Some  Things  the  Arabs  Learned.  —  The  Arabs  became 
great  students  of  mathematics.  They  believed  the  earth 
to  be  round  and  computed  its  correct  size.  It  is  said  they 
were  teaching  geography  in  their  schools  from  globes,  while 
the  Christians  were  still  maintaining  that  the  earth  was 
flat.  The  Arabs  determined  that  the  earth's  atmosphere  is 
about  fifty-eight  miles  deep,  and  they  were  correct.  They 
built  observatories  for  studying  the  stars,  and  they  made 
the  first  clock  with  a  pendulum,  while  the  Christian  nations 


DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 


Minaret  of  Mosque  of  the  Sultan 
Kalaun,  Cairo. 


were  still  using  the  sand 
in  the  hourglass  for 
measuring  time. 

What  the  West  Owes 
to  Them.  — The  Moors 
were  skillful  in  tilling 
the  soil  and  in  raising 
fine  sheep.  Their 
horses  are  even  now 
famous  the  world  over. 
They  brought  into 
Spain  rice,  sugar,  cot- 
ton, silk,  and  nearly 
all  the  fine  garden  and 
orchard  fruits.  Later 
they  brought  to  the 
West  gunpowder  and 
cannon  made  of  iron, 
and  still  later,  the 
mariner's  compass. 

The  Arabs  Make  a 
Cheap  Paper.  —  The 
Arabs  also  taught  the 
people  of  Europe  how 
to  make  a  cheap  paper 
out  of  cotton  or  linen. 
This  was  a  very  im- 
portant discovery  for 
the  world.  The  papy- 
rus plant  used  by  the 
Romans  had  practi- 
cally disappeared,  and 
it  was  very  expensive 


MOHAMMED   AND   THE   MOORS  199 

to  make  books  out  of  sheepskins,  or  parchment.  But 
cotton  or  linen  paper  was  cheap ;  and  when  the  invention 
of  printing  came  a  little  later,  books  and  learning  were 
brought  within  the  reach  of  the  poor.  Since  education  is 
the  first  step  in  securing  rights  and  liberty  for  the  poor  and 
oppressed,  we  can  see  how  much  paper  and  printing  meant 
to  the  world. 

How  Could  Europe  be  in  the  Dark  ?  —  We  are  surprised 
to  read  of  all  this  learning  and  civilization  in  Spain,  while 
the  other  countries  of  Europe  were  in  the  midst  of  the  Dark 
Ages ;  but  we  know  that  the  roads  were  poor,  and  that  there 
was  very  little  travel  or  trade.  In  addition,  the  Christians 
looked  upon  the  Moors  as  hated  infidels,  whose  learning, 
the  Christians  believed,  must  have  come  from  Satan. 

What  the  Arabs  Saved  for  Us. — The  Mohammedans 
gathered  together  the  books,  the  learning,  and  the  skill  of 
all  the  countries  that  they  conquered,  and  they  added  much 
to  it.  We  are  very  glad  indeed  that  they  were  able  to 
save  this  learning  until  our  rude  German  forefathers  were 
ready  to  take  it  up  and  carry  it  forward.  How  much  of 
the  civilization  of  the  East  came  through  Spain  and  how 
much  was  brought  back  by  the  crusaders,  we  do  not  know ; 
but,  at  any  rate,  the  Arabs  and  Moors  did  the  West  a  great 
service. 

QUESTIONS 

Mohammed  and  the  Moors  —  1.  Why  was  so  little  known  of  the 
Arabs?  2.  What  was  the  condition  of  their  civilization ?  3.  What 
did  they  need?  4.  Describe  Mohammed's  early  life.  5.  This  life 
led  him  to  make  what  resolve?  6.  What  vision  did  he  have? 
7.  What  was  his  attitude  toward  Christianity  ?  8.  What  was  his  be- 
lief ?  9.  How  was  the  Koran  made  ?  10.  How  did  the  Arabs  receive 
the  new  faith?  11.  What  did  Mohammed  accomplish ?  12.  Who 
was  Calif?  13.  What  was  the  ambition  of  the  Mohammedans? 
14.   What  did  they  conquer?     15.   What  was  their  attitude  toward 


200    DAWN   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

the  Christians?  16.  Describe  Omar's  mosque.  17.  What  good 
qualities  did  these  Arabs  show?  18.  Where  did  they  journey? 
19.  Describe  their  advance  into  Spain.  20.  Who  were  the  Moors? 
21.  How  do  you  account  for  their  cities  ?  22.  Compare  the  homes  of 
the  Moors  and  Christians.  23.  Tell  about  their  schools.  24.  What 
were  the  sweating  calculators?  25.  Why  were  they  so  called? 
26.    What  gains  came  to  western  Europe  through  the  Arabs  ? 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE   CRUSADES 

Christians  of  Jerusalem  Persecuted.  —  After  Omar's 
death,  the  Christians  of  Jerusalem  were  treated  more 
harshly  then  before.  They  were  forced  to  conceal  their 
crosses  and  their  Bibles.  Sometimes  they  were  driven  from 
their  homes  and  insulted  in  their  churches.  The  Saracens 
now  demanded  a  heavier  tribute  and  forbade  them  to  carry 
arms  or  to  be  seen  on  horseback.  The  Christians  were 
forced  to  wear  a  girdle  of  leather,  which  was  the  badge  of 
their  servitude;  and  they  were  not  allowed  to  speak  the 
Arabic  language. 

Sunshine  and  Storm.  —  Sometimes  the  Christians  were 
not  persecuted  for  a  long  time;  then  under  a  new  Calif 
all  worship  was  prohibited,  they  were  driven  from  the  sacred 
city,  and  their  churches  were  turned  into  stables.  Then 
once  more,  they  were  permitted  to  return  and  to  rebuild 
their  churches.  But  all  this  persecution  could  not  stop 
the  crowd  of  Christian  pilgrims  from  going  to  Jerusalem. 
Instead  they  increased  in  numbers,  until  one  band  of 
pilgrims  numbered  several  thousand.  The  Saracens  usually 
encouraged  these  pilgrimages  because  of  the  money  tribute 
they  wrung  from  them. 

Saracens  and  Turks.  —  About  a  hundred  years  after 
the  death  of  Alfred  the  Great,  the  Mohammedan  empire 
was  attacked  in  the  East  by  the  Turks.  They  were  a 
rough,  cruel,  and  barbarous  people.  In  their  ways  of 
living,  their  manners,  habits,  and  skill  in  labor,  the  Turks 

20I 


202     DAWN  OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 


were  far  below  the  Saracens,  whom  they  now  attacked  with 
great  fury.  The  Arabs  had  absorbed  the  culture  and  skill, 
and  the  art  of  the  Greek  life  about  them,  and  had  settled 
down  to  quiet,  civilized  habits.  In  doing  this  they  lost 
much  of  their  fiery  courage  and  their  knowledge  of  war. 
Thus  the  empire  of  the  Saracens  fell  to  the  rude  and  warlike 


Pilgrims  Entering  Bethlehem  on  Christmas  Day 


Turks.     Though  they  accepted  Islam,  the  Turks  remained 
cruel  and  savage  as  before. 

Turks  and  Christians.  —  The  Turks  took  Jerusalem 
(1076),  robbed  the  Christians,  and  reduced  them  to  fright- 
ful misery.  As  more  and  more  of  Palestine  fell  into  their 
hands,  the  pilgrims  to  Jerusalem  began  to  meet  with  very 
harsh  treatment.  After  a  visit  to  the  sacred  city,  the 
pilgrims  returned  to  Europe  and  told  with  groans  of  their 
wrongs,  and  of  the  outrages  that  the  Turks  had  committed 
upon  the  tomb  of  Christ.     Christian  bishops,  they  said,  were 


THE   CRUSADES  203 

dragged  from  their  churches  and  thrown  into  dungeons  to 
die,  and  the  followers  of  Jesus  were  tormented  in  countless 
ways. 

Peter  the  Hermit  in  Jerusalem.  —  During  these  days, 
according  to  the  story,  Peter  the  Hermit,  a  restless  monk, 
made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem.  He  followed  the  crowds 
of  pilgrims  to  Calvary  and  to  the  tomb  of  Christ.  He 
visited  every  sacred  spot  with  head  bowed  in  sorrow,  because 
all  that  he  saw  was  in  the  hands  of  the  inhuman  Turks. 

Peter  and  Simeon.  —  Then  Peter  appeared  before 
Simeon,  the  chief  Christian  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and  to- 
gether they  wept  over  the  wrongs  done  the  Christians.  The 
Hermit  asked  whether  there  was  to  be  no  end  to  such  suffer- 
ing and  insults.  The  white-haired  Simeon  replied  :  "  Oh 
most  faithful  of  Christians  !  All  Asia  is  in  the  power  of  the 
Turks,  all  the  East  is  sunk  into  a  state  of  slavery  ;  no  power 
on  earth  can  assist  us."  Then  Peter  told  Simeon  that 
perhaps  the  Christian  princes  of  the  West  might  some  day 
come  and  free  Jerusalem  from  the  infidels.  At  these  words, 
it  is  said,  Peter  and  Simeon  embraced  each  other,  shedding 
tears  of  joy  and  hope.  Then  the  enthusiasm  of  Peter  knew 
no  bounds. 

Peter  Hears  a  Voice.  —  One  day  while  praying  before 
the  Holy  Sepulcher,  he  believed  that  he  heard  the  voice  of 
Christ  saying,  "  Peter,  arise,  hasten  to  proclaim  the  suffer- 
ing of  my  people  ;  it  is  time  that  my  servants  should  receive 
help  and  that  the  holy  places  should  be  delivered."  With 
these  words  ever  in  his  ears,  Peter  left  Palestine,  crossed 
the  Mediterranean,  landed  on  the  coast  of  Italy,  and  has- 
tened to  cast  himself  at  the  feet  of  the  pope.  Pope  Urban  II 
received  Peter  kindly,  listened  to  his  story,  and  bade  him 
do  as  the  voice  had  directed  —  proclaim  that  Jerusalem 
must  soon  be  delivered. 


204     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

Peter  Preaching  the  Crusade.  —  Peter  then  crossed  the 
Alps,  visited  all  parts  of  France,  and  nearly  all  of  Europe, 
arousing  the  people  everywhere  with  his  zeal.  He  traveled 
about,  mounted  on  a  mule,  a  crucifix  in  his  hand,  his  feet 
bare,  his  head  uncovered,  his  long  frock  girded  by  a  cord. 
Wherever  he  appeared  he  was  looked  upon  as  a  saint. 
From  city  to  city,  from  country  to  country  he  went,  preach- 
ing a  crusade  from  the  pulpits  of  churches,  in  the  high- 
roads, and  other  public  places.     In  vivid  words  Peter  told 


Peter  the  Hermit  Preaching  to  the  Crusaders. 

how  the  blood  of  Christians  was  shed  in  torrents  in  the 
streets  of  Jerusalem.  When  he  had  stirred  up  the  ignorant 
multitude  with  his  fiery  words,  he  showed  the  crucifix 
that  he  carried  with  him.  All  the  while  he  wept,  striking 
his  breast  and  wounding  his  flesh. 

The  People  Aroused.  —  The  people  followed  the  steps 
of  Peter  in  crowds.  Those  who  could  but  touch  his  gar- 
ments deemed  themselves  happy,  and  a  hair  pulled  from  his 
mule  was  preserved  as  a  holy  relic.  They  raised  their 
voices  to  heaven  in  prayer.     Some  offered  all  their  riches, 


THE   CRUSADES  205 

others  their  prayers ;  and  all  promised  to  lay  down  their 
lives  for  the  rescue  of  the  Holy  City  from  the  wicked 
Turks. 

Alexis  Asking  Help.  —  About  this  time  the  Turks  were 
marching  to  take  Constantinople,  the  capital  of  the  Greek 
empire ;  and  the  Emperor  Alexis  sent  urgent  letters  to  the 
pope  and  to  western  princes,  asking  them  to  come  to  help 
him  drive  back  these  savages.  He  wrote  of  the  treasures 
and  beauty  of  his  great  city,  of  its  many  sacred  relics,  and 
begged  the  barons  and  knights  to  defend  them.  He  could, 
he  said,  bear  the  loss  of  his  crown,  but  not  the  shame  of 
seeing  his  empire  plundered  by  the  inhuman  Turks. 

The  Council  of  War.  —  Pope  Urban  II  now  called  a 
council  to  meet  at  Clermont  in  France  to  decide  what  to 
do.  Immense  crowds  were  present.  The  pope  ascended  a 
kind  of  throne,  which  had  been  built  for  him  in  the  great 
market  place;  and  by  his  side  was  Peter  the  Hermit, 
dressed  in  his  usual  rude  manner. 

The  Hermit's  Stirring  Speech.  —  Peter  spoke  first :  "  I 
have  seen,"  he  said,  "  Christians  loaded  with  irons,  dragged 
into  slavery,  or  harnessed  to  the  yoke  like  the  vilest  animals. 
The  Turks  tore  from  them  their  very  bread  as  tribute. 
The  Christians  could  not  even  salute  the  temple  of  their 
God  without  paying  the  accursed  Turks  a  tax.  Ministers 
of  God  were  dragged  from  their  churches,  beaten  with  rods, 
and  condemned  to  death."  As  Peter  told  of  these  wrongs 
of  the  Christians  at  Jerusalem,  his  face  was  cast  down  and 
his  voice  was  choked  with  sobs ;  while  the  people  wept. 
Then  Pope  Urban  spoke.  He  begged  the  Christian  knights 
to  cease  their  petty  wars  upon  one  another.  "  If  you  must 
fight,"  said  he,  "  take  arms  against  those  inhuman  Turks 
who  are  desecrating  the  tomb  of  the  Savior."  When  he  told 
of  the  miseries  of  Jerusalem,  the  whole  assembly  was  again 


2o6     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 


in  tears;  the  warriors  who  listened  to  him  clutched  their 
swords  and  swore  in  their  hearts  to  avenge  the  cause  of 
Christ.  "  Christian  Warriors,"  he  said,  "  listen  to  the 
groans  of  Jerusalem ;  Jesus  Christ  calls  you  to  his  defense." 
And  he  quoted  from  the  Bible  the  words  of  Jesus.  The 
whole  assembly  arose  in  a  mass  as  one  man,  and  cried, 
"  It  is  the  will  of  God  !  It  is  the  will  of  God  !  "  "  Yes, 
without  doubt,  it  is  the  will  of  God,"  continued  the  elo- 
quent pope.  "  Let  those 
words  be  your  war  cry." 

The  War  of  the  Cross. 
—  The  barons  and  knights 
now  forgot  their  private 
quarrels  and  took  a  solemn 
oath  to  rescue  the  tomb 
of  Christ.  So  war  was  de- 
clared against  the  infidel 
Turks.  As  the  bishops  re- 
turned to  their  churches 
they  continued  to  bless  the 
crowd  of  Christians  along 
the  way,  who  wished  to  be 
led  to  the  Holy  Land. 
They  took  the  name  of 
"  Bearers  of  the  Cross," 
and  the  holy  war  was  called 
a  Crusade.  The  cross, 
which  was  their  emblem, 
It  was  first  blessed  by  the 
pope  or  some  bishop  and  then  sewed  upon  the  right 
shoulder  or  fastened  upon  the  front  of  the  helmet. 
The  Crusaders  begged  the  pope  to  lead  them  in  person, 
but   he   felt  that  his   presence  was  needed  at  home,   so 


A  Knight  of  the  Cross. 


was   of   red  cloth   or  silk. 


THE   CRUSADES  207 

he  appointed  the  Bishop  of  Puy  as  his  legate  with  the 
army  of  Crusaders. 

Preparing  for  the  Journey.  —  The  fame  of  the  holy  war 
soon  spread  abroad,  and  every  one  was  eager  to  march  to 
Jerusalem.  All  Europe  seemed  to  be  taking  arms  against 
Asia.  The  Council  of  Clermont  was  held  in  November 
(1095),  while  the  departure  of  the  Crusaders  was  fixed  for 
the  following  spring.  During  the  winter  nothing  was 
thought  of  but  preparations  for  the  voyage  to  the  Holy 
Land.  Men  were  eager  to  sell  everything  that  they  could 
not  carry  with  them. 

A  Queer  Army.  —  As  soon  as  spring  came  the  people 
hastened  to  the  places  where  they  were  to  assemble.  The 
greater  number  went  on  foot,  some  on  horseback,  and  many 
in  ox  wagons.  They  were  armed  with  lances,  swords, 
javelins,  iron  clubs,  or  other  rude  weapons.  The  crowds 
were  a  curious  mixture  of  all  sorts  of  people  —  knights  and 
monks,  rich  and  poor,  old  men  and  boys,  and  even  women 
and  children. 

Europe  Taking  Arms.  —  Everywhere  was  heard  the  clang 
of  arms  and  armor  or  the  braying  of  trumpets.  The  zealous 
knights  were  even  now  chanting  their  songs  of.  victory. 
On  all  sides  resounded  the  war  cry  of  the  Crusaders : 
"  It  is  the  will  of  God !  It  is  the  will  of  God !  "  Entire 
families  and  whole  villages  set  out  for  Palestine ;  even  the 
sick  and  weak  often  dragged  themselves  along.  Those 
who  could  not  go  wept  as  the  Crusaders  set  out. 

Expecting  Food  from  Heaven.  —  The  thousands  of 
poor,  ignorant  people  who  made  up  the  mob  never  stopped 
to  ask  themselves  where  they  were  to  get  their  food. 
They  thought  that  surely  God  would  not  leave  pilgrims 
clothed  with  the  holy  cross  to  perish  from  hunger.  Even 
the  great  lords  knew  little  of  the  world  or  what  a  long  and 


208     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

difficult  march  they  were  undertaking.  Some  took  their 
hunting  and  fishing  outfits  and  marched  away  with  their 
falcons  on  their  wrists,  preceded  by  their  hounds. 

The  Army  is  Divided.  —  Such  countless  numbers  had 
taken  up  the  cross  that  there  were  enough  to  form  several 
large  armies;  and  as  they  would  have  to  live  upon  the 
countries  through  which  they  passed,  it  was  thought  best 
for  the  chief  princes  to  lead  their  followers  along  different 
routes,  and  for  all  to  meet  later  at  Constantinople. 

Peter  in  Command.  —  The  multitude  who  followed  Peter 
chose  him  for  their  general.  He  took  command,  mounted 
upon  his  mule,  and  soon  found  a  mob  of  one  hundred 
thousand  people  at  his  back.  Among  them  were  women, 
children,  and  many  sick,  who  thought  that  God  himself 
would  protect  them,  that  the  rivers  would  part  for  them  to 
pass  over,  and  that  manna  would  fall  from  heaven  to  feed 
them.  The  multitude  was  divided  into  two  armies. 
Walter  the  Penniless  led  the  way  with  only  eight  horsemen, 
and  a  part  of  Peter's  army  following  on  foot.  Peter  was  to 
set  out  some  time  later  with  the  remaining  host.  As  each 
new  city  came  into  view,  the  children  cried  out :  "  Is  that 
Jerusalem?  " 

The  Crusaders  in  Bulgaria.  —  The  Crusaders  were  well 
fed  by  the  people  as  long  as  they  were  on  French  and  Ger- 
man soil ;  but  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube  Walter  found 
a  cold  reception  among  the  Bulgarians.  When  the  gov- 
ernor  of  the  Bulgarians  was  unable  to  supply  the  army  of  the 
cross  with  food,  the  Crusaders  spread  over  the  country, 
carried  off  the  flocks,  burnt  the  houses,  and  massacred  some 
of  the  people,  who  objected  to  being  plundered.  The  Bul- 
garians ran  to  arms  and  fell  upon  the  soldiers  of  Walter 
loaded  with  booty.  A  hundred  and  forty  Crusaders  per- 
ished in  the  flames  of  a  church  in  which  they  had  taken 


THE   CRUSADES 


209 


refuge,  while  the  rest  sought  safety  in  flight.  The  wreck 
of  Walter's  army,  suffering  from  famine,  continued  its  march 
through  the  forests.  After  two  months  of  fatigue,  they 
arrived  under  the  walls  of  Constantinople  where  the  emperor 
Alexis  permitted  them  to  wait  for  the  army  of  Peter  the 
Hermit. 

Peter  Bringing  up  the  Rear.  —  Peter's  army  was  then 
passing  through  Germany  and  about  to  receive  worse 
treatment  than  that  of  Walter.  Upon  arriving  at  the  gates 
of  Semlin,  in  Hungary,  Peter's  host  beheld  the  slain  bodies 
of  several  Crusaders  hanging  on  posts.  This  aroused 
Peter's  wrath,  and  he  gave  the  signal  for  revenge.  More 
than  four  thousand  of  the  inhabitants  of  Semlin  fell  under 
the  sword  of  the  Crusaders. 

Peter's  Army  Beyond  Control.  —  The  king  of  Hungary 
now  gathered  an  army,  and  his  people  fled  from  their  un- 
fortified cities  into  the  forests  and  mountains.  Peter's 
army,  as  it  proceeded,  found  the  cities  and  villages  deserted, 
and  there  was  no  food  for  the  hungry  host.  The  leader 
lost  control  of  his  mob,  and  when  they  burnt  some  mills, 
an  army  of  the  enemy  fell  upon  his  rear  guard,  massacred 
hundreds  of  his  followers,  captured  two  thousand  wagons 
and  a  great  number  of  prisoners. 

The  Host  of  Peter  Routed.  —  A  battle  followed,  and  the 
pilgrim  mob,  fighting  without  orders  and  without  leaders, 
was  routed  and  cut  to  pieces.  The  women,  the  children, 
the  horses,  even  the  chest  that  contained  the  numerous 
offerings  of  the  faithful,  all  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  furious 
enemy.  The  Hermit  Peter  escaped  with  the  wreck  of  his 
army.  Only  thirty  thousand  were  left;  and  this  ragged 
and  starving  mob  was  no  longer  feared.  Being  supplied 
with  food  through  pity,  they  at  last  arrived  at  Constanti- 
nople. 


210     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

Alexias  Lending  a  Hand. — The  armies  of  Peter  and  Walter 
now  numbered  one  hundred  thousand.  They  obeyed  no 
one,  but  pillaged  the  country  and  even  the  churches  about 
the  city.  Alexis,  being  anxious  to  get  rid  of  them,  fur- 
nished ships  to  carry  them  to  the  other  side  of  the  Bosporus. 
No  sooner  had  they  set  foot  upon  Asia  than  they  committed 
all  sorts  of  violence  and  crime.  They  robbed  and  plun- 
dered everywhere,  Christians  and  Turks  alike;  and  then 
fell  into  quarrels  among  themselves  over  the  booty. 

Christian  Army  Slain.  —  The  French  boastfully  claimed 
credit  for  every  good  fortune.  So  the  Germans  and  Italians 
chose  their  own  general,  who  led  them  at  once  to  meet  the 
Turks.  This  was  just  the  chance  the  Turks  desired.  They 
met  this  part  of  the  army  of  the  cross  and  put  the  whole 
multitude  to  the  sword.  When  the  dreadful  news  reached 
the  proud  French,  they  spurned  all  advice  and  set  out  in 
haste  to  avenge  the  slaughter  of  their  fellow-pilgrims.  The 
Turks  concealed  a  part  of  their  army  in  the  forest  and 
awaited  the  Christian  host.  The  soldiers  of  the  cross  were 
soon  surrounded  and  cut  down  amid  horrible  carnage. 
Walter,  whose  commands  were  no  longer  heeded,  fell, 
pierced  by  seven  arrows.  The  whole  army  perished  in 
this  single  battle;  and  of  the  multitude  who  had  set  out 
for  Jerusalem  there  remained  only  a  confused  heap  of  bones 
spread  over  the  plains  of  Nicea. 

Why  They  Failed.  —  Peter  had  returned  to  Constanti- 
nople before  the  battle.  He  said  that  the  Crusaders  had 
become  a  host  of  brigands  and  that  God  was  unwilling  to 
have  them  look  upon  the  tomb  of  His  Son.  Thus  the  count- 
less multitude  who  set  out  from  Europe  with  confidence 
perished  miserably  and  in  vain,  without  setting  eyes  upon 
the  Holy  City.  Can  you  think  of  some  reasons  why  they 
failed  ? 


THE   CRUSADES  211 

Godfrey  and  His  Knights.  —  However,  their  terrible 
fate  could  not  check  the  crusading  spirit,  for  other  multi- 
tudes were  now  coming  together  in  Italy,  France,  and 
Germany.  The  throngs  who  followed  Peter  had  been 
little  more  than  mobs  of  wretched  beggars  and  robbers, 
but  the  new  army  now  ready  to  start  was  chiefly  made  up 
of  well-armed  knights  and  nobles  led  by  Godfrey,  a  famous 
knight  and  duke.  Godfrey  was  brave,  virtuous,  and  of 
powerful  build ;  and  from  his  earliest  youth,  he  had  been 
trained  to  fight.  Many  a  knight  had  fallen  before  his 
battle-ax.  His  army  was  composed  of  the  greatest  warriors 
of  Europe,  clad  in  the  finest  steel. 

Money  for  the  Holy  War.  —  Everything  was  sold  to  pro- 
vide arms.  Knights  and  barons  sold  charters  of  liberty 
to  their  towns,  they  sold  all  the  crops  of  their  estates,  they 
brought  forth  their  secret  stores  of  gold;  they  even  sold 
their  castles  and  lands  to  procure  all  things  needed  for  the 
holy  war. 

Signs  in  the  Heavens.  —  During  these  days  when  the 
people  were  very  ignorant  and  superstitious,  the  moon 
went  into  eclipse,  and  the  frightened  people  said  that  it 
was  the  color  of  blood.  Some  weeks  after  this  the  whole 
horizon  seemed  to  be  on  fire,  and  the  terrified  people  be- 
lieved that  the  enemy  was  advancing  from  the  north,  fire 
and  sword  in  hand.  These  portents,  with  other  signs  in 
the  heavens,  the  people  said,  foretold  the  terrible  war. 

Nobles  in  Arms.  —  Those  who  had  not  yet  taken  oath 
to  fight  against  the  infidels  hastened  now  to  take  the  cross. 
Robert  of  Normandy,  the  eldest  son  of  William  the  Con- 
queror, led  his  vassals  to  the  holy  war ;  Robert,  Count  of 
Flanders,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  knights  ;  Stephen, 
Count  of  Blois,  had  taken  up  the  cross ;  and  knights  and 
nobles  enlisted  by  the  hundreds  in  all  the  Christian  countries. 


212     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

An  Army,  Not  a  Mob.  —  In  different  armies  they  set  out 
and  were  soon  encamped  near  Constantinople.  Every- 
where they  saw  the  whitening  bones  of  the  pilgrims  who 
had  been  with  Walter  and  Peter.  The  leaders  learned 
lessons  from  these  early  calamities,  and  laid  down  strict 
rules  of  discipline  for  their  troops.  They  advanced  in  the 
best  of  order  through  Asia  Minor. 

Headed  for  Palestine. —After  defeating  the  Turks  at 
Nicea,  the  host  advanced  toward  Palestine,  passing  some- 
times through  deserts,  where  they  met  with  untold  suffer- 
ing and  where  hundreds  died  of  thirst.  At  one  time  when 
the  whole  army  was  about  to  perish  in  the  parched  desert, 
the  dogs  were  seen  to  depart  from  the  camp  and  to  come 
back  later  covered  with  wet  sand.  The  whole  army  rushed 
headlong  following  the  tracks  of  the  dogs,  and  came  to  a 
river.  Suffering  from  heat  and  thirst,  they  plunged  in  and 
drank  so  eagerly  that  three  hundred  of  them  died  almost 
immediately,  while  many  others  became  ill  and  could  not 
continue  the  march. 

Crusaders  at  Antioch.  —  At  last,  after  losing  many 
soldiers  in  battles  with  the  Turks,  the  Crusaders  reached 
the  ancient  city  of  Antioch,  where  lay  the  ashes  of  hundreds 
of  Christian  saints  and  martyrs.  Before  its  walls  the 
Crusaders  suffered  greatly  from  hunger  and  disease,  for 
the  fleets  had  ceased  to  follow  them  with  food.  After  a 
siege  of  seven  months,  Antioch  fell  to  the  Christians,  who 
rushed  in  with  the  cry :  "  It  is  the  will  of  God !  It  is 
the  will  of  God !  "  They  found  great  riches,  but  little 
food,  and  they  were  soon  shut  up  in  the  city  and  besieged 
by  a  great  army  of  Saracens. 

The  Christian  Army  Starving.  —  Articles  of  food  cost 
their  weight  in  gold,  while  a  pound  of  silver  was  given  for 
the  head  of  a  horse  or  of  an  ox.     The  poor  who  followed 


THE   CRUSADES  213 

the  army  were  compelled  to  subsist  on  roots  and  leaves ; 
some  even  devoured  the  leather  of  their  bucklers  and 
shoes.  Famine  carried  off  every  day  a  great  number  of 
the  Christians.  The  living  became  so  weak  that  they 
were  scarcely  able  to  lift  their  armor  or  to  bury  the  dead. 

Their  Only  Hope.  —  In  this  starving  condition  they 
marched  out  against  the  enemy,  singing  hymns.  They 
looked  like  an  army  of  beggars  coming  to  ask  alms,  but  they 
bore  down  upon  the  Saracens  in  such  a  desperate  charge 
that  the  Saracen  army  fled.  Their  camp  was  taken,  with 
immense  booty  in  treasure,  provisions,  camels,  and  horses. 
Every  Crusader  suddenly  became  rich.  It  is  said  the 
Infidels  left  one  hundred  thousand  dead  on  the  field  of 
battle,  while  the  Crusaders  lost  but  four  thousand.  Fif- 
teen thousand  camels  and  a  great  number  of  horses  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Christian  army. 

Through  Syria. — Six  months  passed  before  the  Crusaders 
set  out  from  Antioch  for  Jerusalem.  On  the  way  they  re- 
ceived with  great  joy  a  reenforcement  of  new  Crusaders 
from  Holland  and  England.  In  passing  through  the  prov- 
inces of  Syria,  the  Crusaders  came  upon  great  groves  of 
olive  trees,  oranges,  and  a  new  plant,  which  attracted  at- 
tention because  it  was  sweeter  than  honey.  The  inhabit- 
ants called  it  zucra;  it  was  what  is  now  called  sugar 
cane.  This  plant  afforded  much  assistance  to  the  Crusaders 
during  famine.  Sugar  cane  had  been  unknown  in  the  West, 
but  it  soon  became  of  great  importance  in  commerce. 

Following  the  Coast.  —  The  crusading  army  was  now  re- 
duced by  losses  and  desertion  to  fifty  thousand.  Perhaps 
this  made  them  the  stronger,  for  they  were  not  burdened 
by  a  multitude  who  were  of  no  help  in  battle.  Following  the 
coast  in  order  to  be  provisioned  by  Genoese  and  Flemish 
fleets,  they  passed  by  Sidon  and  Tyre  and  Acre  and  Joppa. 


214     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

Nearing  Jerusalem.  —  And  now  with  great  joy  the 
Crusaders  approached  Jerusalem.  When  they  ascended 
the  heights  of  Emmaus  and  beheld  the  Holy  City  itself 
before  their  eyes,  they  shouted:  "Jerusalem!  Jerusalem! 
It  is  the  will  of  God!  It  is  the  will  of  God!  "  Their  shout 
resounded  over  Mt.  Zion  and  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Some 
cast  themselves  upon  their  knees  on  beholding  the  sacred 
places,  others  kissed  the  earth  where  the  Savior  had  trod. 
The  horsemen  dismounted  and  marched  barefooted.  By 
turns  they  passed  from  joy  to  sadness.  They  wept  over 
their  sins,  and  rejoiced  that  the  end  of  their  long,  long 
journey  was  in  sight.  They  all  renewed  the  oath  they  had 
so  often  made  to  deliver  the  Holy  City  from  the  yoke  of 
the  Saracens.  There  was  not  a  valley  or  a  rock  but  had  a 
name  sacred  to  the  Christians,  and  they  could  not  with- 
draw their  eyes  from  the  Holy  City,  nor  cease  to  lament 
over  its  misfortunes.  It  looked  as  though  it  were  buried 
in  its  own  ruins. 

Turks  Making  Ready.  —  The  Turks  had  ravaged  the 
surrounding  plains,  burnt  the  villages,  filled  up  or  poisoned 
the  cisterns,  and  made  the  country  a  desert.  So  the  Chris- 
tians soon  began  to  suffer  from  famine  and  disease.  The 
Calif  had  brought  to  the  city  provisions  for  a  long  siege, 
had  called  upon  all  the  Turks  to  come  to  the  defense  of 
Jerusalem,  and  had  employed  a  great  number  of  workmen, 
day  and  night,  to  construct  machines  of  war,  and  to  repair 
the  towers.  The  garrison  of  the  city  amounted  to  forty 
thousand  men  besides  twenty  thousand  of  the  inhabit- 
ants who  had  taken  up  arms. 

An  Immediate  Attack.  —  Some  of  the  Christian  leaders 
urged  an  immediate  attack,  although  they  had  neither 
ladders  nor  machines  of  war.  They  thought  that  surely 
God   himself   would   come   to   their   aid.     The    Christian 


THE   CRUSADES 


215 


Scale    of   Miles 
0        50      100     150      200     250     300 
First  Crusade  ♦!  I  *  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +♦ 

Second  Crusade 

'  Fdk.  Barbarossa 
Third  Crusade  -l  Richard  and 

\-Philip  Augustus  =  «==»  =  = 

30° Longitude  East 


Palestine,  showing  the  Routes  of  the  Crusades. 


216     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

army,  therefore,  approached  the  walls  with  great  zeal, 
holding  their  bucklers  over  their  heads  and  trying  with 
pikes  and  hammers  to  destroy  the  walls.  Some  stood 
farther  away  and  used  their  slings  and  crossbows  to  drive 
the  enemy  away  from  the  walls.  The  Turks  threw  down 
from  the  parapet  oil,  boiling  pitch,  large  stones,  and  enor- 
mous beams ;  but  they  could  not  check  the  enthusiasm  of 
the  Christians. 

The  Inner  Wall  Solid.  —  The  Crusaders  tore  down  the 
outer  wall,  but  found  an  inner  one  which  was  solid.  They 
must  either  scale  it  with  ladders  or  give  it  up.  Having  one 
ladder  that  was  long  enough  to  reach  the  top,  the  bravest 
mounted  upon  it  and  fought  the  Turks  hand  to  hand.  But 
so  few  could  gain  the  top  with  but  one  ladder  that  they 
could  not  hold  their  own  against  the  swarm  of  Saracens. 
Heaven  did  not  come  to  their  aid,  and  their  bravery  was 
unvailing.     So  the  Christians  had  to  retreat. 

Building  Machines  of  War.  —  They  now  set  to  work  at 
once  to  build  machines  of  war.  But  it  was  difficult  to 
find  the  necessary  wood  in  a  country  of  barren  sands  and 
rocks.  They  tore  down  houses  and  even  churches  near  the 
city  to  obtain  timber  for  the  hurling  machines  and  batter- 
ing rams. 

Dying  of  Thirst.  —  The  most  intense  heat  of  summer  now 
came  upon  them.  A  scorching  sun  and  hot  southern  winds 
loaded  with  the  sands  of  the  desert  swept  the  country. 
Plants  and  animals  perished,  streams  and  springs  dried  up. 
The  Christian  army  soon  became  a  prey  to  all  the  horrors 
of  thirst.  Every  morning,  it  is  said,  the  sufferers  glued 
their  parched  lips  to  the  marbles  covered  with  dew.  They 
even  plowed  up  the  ground  with  their  swords  to  bury  their 
heads  in  the  moist  earth. 

Quarrels    Break    Out.  —  Those    who    were    fortunate 


THE   CRUSADES  217 

enough  to  discover  a  spring  concealed  it  from  others, 
and  quarrels  broke  out.  Ofttimes  the  Crusaders  drew  their 
swords  upon  one  another  for  the  sake  of  a  little  muddy  water. 
The  animals  were  released  and  wandered  over  the  desert 
to  die  of  thirst.  The  Saracens  might  have  attacked  them 
then  and  won  an  easy  victory,  but  they  feared  the  famous 
knights. 

Heaven  Sends  Aid.  —  Just  at  this  time  the  Christians 
heard  that  a  Genoese  fleet  with  provisions  was  sailing  for 
the  port  of  Joppa,  and  they  sent  a  band  to  meet  it.  Soon 
after  the  fleet  arrived,  it  was  surprised  and  captured  by  a 
fleet  of  the  Turks,  but  not  until  some  provisions  and  mate- 
rials of  war  had  been  landed.  Engineers  and  carpenters 
had  also  landed  from  the  fleet.  These  hastened  toward 
the  sacred  city  and  soon  appeared  before  the  walls  of  Jeru- 
salem. Every  one  renewed  his  zeal.  Those  who  could  help 
worked  night  and  day  upon  the  machines  of  war.  Three 
of  these  machines  were  huge  towers  built  on  rollers.  Each 
tower  had  three  stages,  or  stories,  the  lowest  for  the  men 
who  were  to  move  it  up  to  the  walls,  and  the  second  and 
third  stories,  for  the  warriors  who  were  to  clear  the  parapets 
of  defenders  and  to  mount  upon  them.  These  towers  were 
higher  than  the  walls.  At  the  top  was  fixed  a  kind  of 
drawbridge,  which  could  be  let  down  upon  the  walls  for  the 
knights  to  pass  over. 

Ready  for  Another  Attack.  —  When  the  machines  were 
ready,  the  Christian  army  began  to  work  up  their  courage. 
After  a  three  days'  fast,  the  whole  army  marched  bare- 
headed and  barefooted  around  the  city,  preceded  by  priests 
clothed  in  white,  carrying  images  of  the  saints  and  singing 
holy  songs.  They  stopped  on  the  very  spot,  upon  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  where  Christ  ascended  into  heaven.  They 
looked  upon  the  rocks  of  Calvary  and  fell  upon  their  knees 


218     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

to  pray.  They  passed  by  the  pool  of  Siloam,  where  Christ 
restored  sight  to  the  man  born  blind ;  they  marched  along 
the  foot  of  Mount  Zion,  and  towards  evening  they  returned 
to  their  camp,  where  many  spent  the  night  in  prayer. 

An  All-day  Battle.  —  At  daybreak  on  the  morning  of  July 
14,  1099,  the  clarions  sounded  the  call  to  battle  in  the 
Christian  camp,  and  the  Crusaders  flew  to  arms.  All  the 
machines  were  moved  to  the  walls,  and  the  Christians  at- 
tacked the  enemy  with  great  fury.  While  the  bowmen 
discharged  a  storm  of  arrows,  the  men  raised  ladders  to 
scale  the  walls,  the  hurling  machines  threw  huge  stones, 
and  the  battering  rams  hammered  at  the  towers.  The 
Turks,  in  turn,  fought  with  a  great  courage.  They  shot 
arrows,  hurled  javelins,  and  threw  down  boiling  oil  and 
Greek  fire,  which  vinegar  alone  would  quench.  And  thus 
the  fiercest  fighting  went  on  all  day  and  until  darkness 
came.  The  Christians  had  the  best  of  the  fight  and  re- 
newed it  the  next  morning. 

Jerusalem  Taken.  — -  The  Turks  upon  the  walls  now 
taunted  the  Christians  for  worshiping  a  God  who  was  not 
able  to  defend  them.  Again  they  hurled  torches,  firepots, 
and  innumerable  stones,  for  they  had  fourteen  machines 
within  the  walls.  The  Christians  continued  to  fight 
bravely,  facing  the  greatest  dangers.  At  last  the  tower  of 
Godfrey,  although  on  fire,  was  pushed  up  close  enough  for 
the  drawbridge  to  reach  the  wall;  and  Godfrey  and  his 
powerful  knights  leaped  upon  it,  fighting  like  giants.  Others 
quickly  followed.  The  flames  and  smoke  from  some  burn- 
ing straw  were  carried  by  the  wind  into  the  faces  of  the 
Turks,  and  they  retreated  from  the  walls  before  the  swords 
of  the  knights.  The  walls  were  now  easily  scaled  with 
ladders,  the  gates  were  opened,  and  the  Christian  host  en- 
tered shouting,  "  It  is  the  will  of   God."     The  Saracens 


THE   CRUSADES 


219 


220     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

were  massacred  in  the  streets  and  in  the  houses  by  the  tens 
of  thousands;  and  Jerusalem  was  rilled  with  blood  and 
mourning. 

A  Thanksgiving.  —  Godfrey  repaired  to  the  church  of 
the  Holy  Sepulcher,  barefooted  and  unarmed,  to  render 


Richard  I  in  Palestine. 


thanks.  When  the  others  heard  of  this,  they  ceased  slaying, 
cast  away  their  bloody  garments,  and  marched  bareheaded 
and  barefooted  to  the  church  of  the  Resurrection.  While 
they  were  thus  assembled  on  Calvary,  night  came  on. 

Wearing  a  Crown.  —  The  next  day  the  slaughter  of  the 
Turks  began  anew.  For  weeks  the  Saracens  were  hunted 
down  and  put  to  the  sword.  Then  came  a  desire  for  peace, 
order,  and  government.  Godfrey  was  chosen  king,  but 
he  would  not  wear  a  crown  of  gold  in  the  city  where  the 
Savior  wore  a  crown  of  thorns.     Instead  of  king  he  was 


THE   CRUSADES 


221 


called  "  Defender  and  Baron  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher."  Of 
the  vast  throngs  of  Crusaders  who  set  out  from  their  homes 
in  the  West  for  the  Holy  Land,  only  a  few  were  now  alive. 
Many  of  these  soon  embarked  for  home.  Their  presence  in 
Europe  stirred  up  great  enthusiasm,  and  thousands  were 
eager  for  a  new  crusade. 

The  Second  Crusade.  —  The  Crusader  knights  who  re- 
mained in  Jerusalem  drove  back  the  Turks  from  Palestine 
and  built  up  a  Christian  empire  in  Asia,  but  it  was  not  long 
before  the  Turk  was  again  gaining  ground.  A  second 
Crusade  therefore  took  place  about  fifty  years  after  the 
first.  It  was  led  by  Emperor  Conrad  III  and  Louis  VII  of 
France,  but  it  failed  miserably  because  of  ignorance  and  bad 
generalship. 

Another  Failure.  —  Forty  years  later,  when  the  Turks 
had  recaptured  Jerusalem,  a  third  crusade  was  attempted. 


The  Sacking  of  Jerusalem. 


222     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

This  time  three  rulers  of  Europe  took  part:  Frederick 
Barbarossa  of  Germany,  Philip  II  of  France,  and  Richard 
of  England.  This  was  the  best  known  of  all  the  Crusades, 
but  it  also  failed.  The  death  of  Frederick  and  the  jealousy 
between  Philip  and  Richard  ruined  the  expedition. 

More  Ignorance  and  Folly.  —  Still  other  expeditions 
against  the  Turks  set  forth,  only  to  fail.  There  was  even 
a  children's  Crusade  in  which  tens  of  thousands  of  children 
lost  their  lives.  All  this  shows  how  ignorant  and  foolish 
the  people  of  those  times  were.  The  Turks  held  their  own 
against  all  comers,  and  Jerusalem  remained  at  last  in  their 
hands.  It  now  became  more  popular  for  those  who  wished 
to  make  war  on  the  infidels  to  help  the  Spanish  Goths  in 
their  efforts  to  drive  out  the  Moors  from  Spain. 

QUESTIONS 

i.  How  were  Christians  living  in  the  Holy  Land  treated  ?  2.  How 
did  the  Saracens  treat  the  pilgrims  to  Jerusalem  ?  3.  Why  ? 
4.  Who  were  the  Turks?  5.  How  did  they  change  after  taking  the 
Saracen  empire  ?  6.  Did  they  behave  differently  toward  the  Chris- 
tian pilgrims?  7.  Tell  about  Peter  the  Hermit  in  -the  Holy  Land. 
8.  Describe  Peter's  later  preaching.  9.  How  was  he  received  by  the 
people  ?  10.  Who  was  Alexis  and  why  did  he  hate  the  Turks  ? 
11.  Tell  about  the  Council  of  Clermont.  12.  Describe  Peter's  army 
and  tell  what  became  of  it.  13.  Give  some  reasons  why  he  failed  to 
reach  Jerusalem.     14.   How  did  Godfrey's  army  differ  from  Peter's  ? 

15.  Describe    the   march  through  Asia   Minor   toward   Jerusalem. 

16.  Locate  the  cities  through  which  the  army  of  the  cross  marched. 

17.  What  mistakes  did  the  Christians  make  ?  18.  Tell  about  the  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem.  19.  Discuss  the  later  crusades  and  tell  why  they 
failed. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
RESULTS   OF   THE   CRUSADES 

Saracens  Not  "Horned  Devils."  —  The  Crusades  were 
scattered  through  a  field  of  two  hundred  years,  during 
which  time  throngs  of  men  of  all  classes  matched  swords 
with  the  Turks.  And  although  they  all  failed  to  rescue  the 
Holy  Land,  still  Europe  reaped  great  gain  from  them.  The 
army  of  the  cross  set  out,  as  they  thought,  to  "  kill  horned 
devils,"  but  those  few  who  escaped  death  came  back  to  tell 
of  the  wonderful  cities,  and  the  great  countries  that  they 
had  visited,  and  of  the  educated  people  whom  they  had  met. 

The  Returning  Knights.— Not  only  the  multitudes  who 
went,  but  those  who  stayed  behind,  were  wonderfully 
stimulated  and  educated  by  the  Crusades ;  for  the  return- 
ing knights  of  the  cross  were  welcomed  to  every  fireside,  and 
the  people  were  never  tired  of  listening  to  their  exciting 
experiences. 

Europe  Ready  to  Learn.  —  Europeans  found  that  the 
world  was  larger  than  they  had  dreamed,  and  that  there 
were  many  great  nations,  who  had  newer  ideas,  higher  ways 
of  living,  and  better  ways  of  doing  things  than  they  had. 
The  people  of  Europe  saw  that  they  must  learn  the  great 
lessons  of  civilized  living  from  these  hated  Saracens,  if  they 
wished  to  be  the  leading  people  of  the  world.  Europe  was 
now  ready  to  learn,  and  the  Arabs  proved  fine  teachers. 

New  Fashions  and  New  Foods.  — The  Crusaders  brought 
home  among  other  ideas  new  fashions,  such  as  shaving  and 
bathing.     They   also    taught    to    Europe    the   growing   of 

223 


224     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

lemons,  apricots,  watermelons,  rice,  and  sugar  cane.     These 
things  made  life  in  the  West  much  pleasanter. 

Ship  Building.  —  The  Crusaders  also  greatly  stimulated 
ship  building.  Many  new  vessels  had  to  be  built  in  the 
Mediterranean  to  carry  supplies  to  the  army  of  the  cross. 
The  later  Crusaders,  in  order  to  avoid  the  long,  toilsome, 
and  dangerous  journey  overland,  took  passage  on  water. 
Thus  many  new  ships  were  needed.     The  ships  that  plied 


Ancient  Ships. 

the  Mediterranean  were  larger  than  those  upon  the  Atlantic, 
because  the  inland  sea  is  not  as  rough  as  the  ocean,  and 
there  were  great  numbers  of  men  seeking  passage  for  the 
Holy  Land.  The  vessels  were  often  a  hundred  feet  long 
and  could  carry,  besides  several  score  of  oarsmen,  a  hundred 
or  more  passengers  with  their  provisions  and  baggage. 
The  ships  were  propelled  mainly  by  oars,  but  sails  were 
used  when  there  was  a  favorable  wind.  The  ship  captains, 
in  early  times,  took  their  lives  in  their  hands  when  they 
ventured  out  of  sight  of  land.     They  had  to  rely  upon  the 


RESULTS   OF   THE   CRUSADES 


225 


sun  and  stars  as  guides,  and  there  was  always  danger  of  the 
heavens  being  hidden  by  clouds.  Ships  often  missed  their 
port  by  as  much  as  five  hundred  miles.  But  with  the 
Crusades  came  greater  knowledge  of  the  sea  and  of  the  use 
of  ships. 

The  Compass.  —  Shortly  after  the  first  Crusades  the 
Europeans  learned  the  use  of  the  mariner's  compass  from 
the  Arabs,  who  brought  it  from  the  East.  Who  invented 
the  compass,  we  do  not  know,  but  it  is  supposed  by  some  to 
have  Gome  from  China.  Since  the  compass  always  points 
to  the  north,  sailors  could  now  tell  the 
directions  in  cloudy  weather.  The 
first  compasses  were  merely  magnetized 
needles  fixed  upon  cork  and  floating 
upon  water  so  that  they  could  turn 
easily.  When  the  sea  was  rough,  the 
water  on  which  the  needle  floated  was  Mariner'*  Compas 
disturbed,  and  the  needle  could  not  do  its  work.  At  last 
some  one  tried  balancing  the  needle  upon  a  point,  and  this 
proved  satisfactory  in  all  weather.  The  compass  could  now 
be  relied  upon,  and  it  became  a  great  aid  to  commerce. 
"  Sailing  directions  "  also  came  into  use.  These  were  little 
books  telling  the  sailor  about  the  coasts,  the  tides,  and  the 
shallows  or  rocks  near  the  surface  of  the  sea. 

Water  Transportation  Costly.  —  Voyages  came  to  be 
longer,  but  the  expense  of  shipping  was  still  great.  Spices 
cost  three  times  as  much  in  Belgium  as  in  Venice,  and  Eng- 
lish wool  sold  in  Italy  for  twelve  times  as  much  as  at  home. 
Each  ship  had  to  carry  a  band  of  armed  sailors,  for  sea 
fighting  was  a  regular  practice,  often  among  respectable 
people.  Sometimes  an  ordinary  merchantman  turned 
pirate,  if  it  met  a  weaker  ship.  Even  a  Canterbury  abbot 
was  proved  to  have  plundered  a  vessel  loaded  with  wine.     It 


226     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

is  said  that  Christopher  Columbus  was  known  to  have 
taken  part  in  pirate  expeditions.  The  crews  and  passengers 
of  the  captured  vessel  were  frequently  tossed  overboard, 
sometimes  with  their  hands  tied  behind  their  backs,  or 
they  were  murdered  on  the  deck  with  heartless  cruelty. 
All  this  added  to  the  dangers  of  the  sea  and  to  the  cost  of 
transporting  goods  by  water. 

Spices  and  Luxuries,  from  the  East.  —  But  in  spite  of  the 
dangers,  commerce  grew  rapidly.  Spices,  such  as  cloves, 
cinnamon,  and  nutmeg,  became  cheaper.  They  were  in 
great  demand  for  seasoning  in  every  home,  because  the 
food  of  even  the  nobles  was,  in  those  days,  coarse  and  un- 
inviting. Spices  were  also  needed  in  preserving  food  for 
winter  use.  Dates  and  oils  were  now  to  be  had.  Merchants 
brought  cotton  goods  such  as  calicoes  from  Calicut,  and 
muslin  from  Mosul ;  they  brought  fine  satins  and  silks  from 
Syria,  tapestries  and  carpets  from  Persia,  and  precious 
stones  and  perfumes  from  Arabia. 

Desire  for  Travel.  —  Men  began  to  want  to  travel  and  to 
visit  strange  and  far-off  people.  Such  men  as  Marco  Polo 
set  out  for  China,  going  overland  through  Asia.  In  this  way 
new  trade  routes  were  opened,  new  countries  appeared  on 
the  map,  and  new  luxuries  were  sold  in  the  market  place. 

The  Crossbow  and  Gunpowder.  —  Soon  the  crossbow 
appeared,  coming  also  from  the  East.  It  was  used  in  war 
and  in  the  chase,  until  gunpowder  took  its  place.  Nobody 
knows  who  invented  gunpowder  or  where  it  came  from,  but 
many  think  that  it,  too,  was  brought  from  the  East  by  the 
Arabs.  Others  believe  that  Roger  Bacon,  an  Englishman, 
invented  it.  Bacon  read  much  from  the  Greeks,  and  he 
had  a  laboratory  where  he  performed  experiments.  He 
said  that  anybody  who  wanted  to  make  a  big  flash  and  a 
great  noise  could  do  so  by  mixing  saltpeter,  charcoal,  and 


RESULTS   OF   THE   CRUSADES  227 

sulphur,  and  touching  fire  to  it.  "  Truly,"  he  said,  "  I  am 
not  joking."  No  one  would  think  of  saying  now  that 
gunpowder  is  a  joke. 

The  First  Gun.  —  Some  unknown  man  found  out  that 
powder  would  throw  objects  that  were  lying  upon  it  when 
it  exploded ;  and  finally  some  genius  thought  of  using  a 
hollow  iron  tube,  closed  at  one  end,  so  that  the  powder 
could  throw  straight.  And  thus  the  gun  was  invented. 
Woe  to  the  knight  with  all  his  armor,  for  the  poorest  serf 
with  a  gun  could  now  fight  better. 

The  Windmill.  —  Another  machine  very  useful  to  man 
came  into  Europe  just  after  the  Crusades.  Again  we  cannot 
learn  where  or  by  whom  it  was  invented,  but  it,  too,  is 
believed  to  have  come  through  the  Arabs.  This  was  the 
windmill.  Anything  that  will  help  mankind  to  get  food 
or  clothing  more  easily,  or  that  will  save  labor,  is  a  great 
blessing ;  for  when  man  does  not  have  to  spend  every  hour 
in  search  of  his  daily  food,  he  has  time  to  think,  time  to 
make  better  tools  and  to  invent  new  ones.  The  people  had 
long  used  water  power  and  horse  power ;  but  not  wind 
power,  save  in  the  case  of  the  sails  of  ships. 

Use  of  the  Windmill.  —  The  first  windmills  were  built  on 
wooden  towers,  but  whenever  the  wind  changed,  the  whole 
tower  had  to  be  turned  so  the  breeze  could  again  catch  the 
wheel.  After  a  time  some  clever  man  made  one  so  that  he 
could  turn  the  wheel  to  the  wind  without  moving  the  tower. 
Then  people  came  to  build  the  towers  of  brick  and  stone. 
Although  rudely  made,  the  windmill  was  early  used  for 
grinding  corn  when  the  water  was  too  low  for  water  mills  to 
run.  Besides,  windmills  might-  be  built  anywhere,  while 
watermills  could  be  useful  only  along  swift  rivers. 

Money  a  Help.  —  To  carry  on  the  increasing  trade  of 
Europe  after  the  Crusades,  it  was  necessary  to  have  to  make 


228     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 


exchanges  easily ;  and  when  money  came  in  abundance,  it 
accomplished  other  things  besides  helping  the  merchants 
and  traders.  Tenants  no  longer  had  to  pay  their  rents  in 
produce  or  in  day's  labor  for  their  lord ;  they  paid  money 
rents  instead,  for  they  could  now  sell  their  surplus  products 


S^ 

S^i 

W 

%$r. 

m 

#'^  S&* 

M^wF     >  Hr      2§2f  -  If 

jMufcg 

p 

A  Dutch  Windmill. 

for  cash.     Money  rents  freed  tenants  and  serfs  from  many 
burdens. 

King  Grows  Stronger.  —  The  kings,  too,  were  glad  that 
money  had  come  back  into  use ;  because  now  they  could  col- 
lect a  tax  for  the  state  and  use  it  to  keep  up  a  standing 
army.  With  a  good  army  they  were  able  to  make  the  nobles 
and  barons  obey  them.     So  instead  of  a  very  great  number 


RESULTS   OF   THE   CRUSADES  229 

of  petty  feudal  states,  there  came  to  be  a  few  large  and 
strong  kingdoms  with  powerful  rulers. 

The  Third  Estate.  —  Up  to  the  time  of  the  Crusades, 
there  had  been  but  two  ruling  classes  who  had  any  power 
or  share  in  the  government.  They  were  the  nobles  and  the 
churchmen,  or  clergy.  Now  we  notice  a  third  class  rising 
into  view.     It  was  called  the  Third  Estate,  or  the  towns. 

Towns  Buy  Freedom.  —  Many  lords  and  abbots,  and 
even  kings,  were  in  hard  straits  for  money  to  defray  the 
expenses  of  their  expeditions  to  Jerusalem.  So  they  sold 
charters  of  liberties  freely  to  the  growing  towns  upon  their 
estates.  These  charters  stated  what  privileges  and  freedom 
the  townspeople  were  to  have  and  enjoy,  and  this  written 
charter  bound  the  king  or  noble  or  abbot  as  firmly  as  it  did 
the  town,  for  his  name  was  signed  to  it.  In  this  way  many 
towns  obtained  freedom  from  taxes  to  their  feudal  lords 
and  freedom  from  tolls  and  from  all  sorts  of  burdens. 

Other  Towns  Free.  —  Hundreds  and  thousands  of  nobles 
who  embarked  for  the  Holy  Land  never  came  back,  and 
many  towns  got  their  liberty  in  this  way.  Still  other  cities 
in  France  and  Germany  made  war  on  their  lords.  Some 
cities  rose  up  in  arms  five,  six,  or  a  dozen  times,  before  they 
won  their  freedom. 

Towns  Ask  a  Share  in  the  Government.  —  The  towns- 
people were  obtaining  riches  from  the  growing  commerce 
and  manufactures,  and  with  riches  came  leisure.  They 
had  time  to  think,  to  read,  to  travel,  and  to  become  as  well 
educated  as  the  nobles  and  clergy.  Then  the  towns  began 
to  demand  a  share  in  the  government  with  the  other  two 
classes. 

The  King  and  the  Towns  Join  Hands.  —  The  king  was 
friendly  to  the  towns.  They  could  furnish  the  money  he 
needed  to  keep  a  standing  army.     The  king  alone  could  in- 


230     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

sure  the  peace  and  freedom  for  trade  that  the  towns  wanted 
because  of  his  standing  army  and  his  growing  power  over 
the  robber  barons.  So  the  towns  and  the  king  joined  hands 
against  the  feudal  lords.  The  nobles  were  no  longer  to  be 
rulers  over  their  estates,  but  were  forced  to  obey  the  king's 
laws.  This,  along  with  money  rents,  caused  feudalism 
gradually,  but  surely,  to  disappear. 

Serfs  in  Cities.  —  During  all  these  years  the  common 
working  people  had  no  rights  whatever;  these  belonged 
only  to  the  nobles  and  the  clergy,  and  now  to  the  towns. 
But  the  condition  of  the  workers  tended  gradually  towards 
freedom,  although  very  slowly  in  some  countries.  Serfs 
in  the  towns  and  cities  often  purchased  their  liberty  with 
money  that  they  earned.  Others  were  not  worth  the  food 
and  clothing  that  they  required,  and  the  masters  were  glad 
to  be  rid  of  them.  Some  ran  away  to  other  towns,  and 
some  were  given  their  freedom.  Thus  serfdom  disappeared 
in  the  cities. 

Free  Farm  Laborers.  —  In  the  country  districts  it  was  a 
much  longer  time  before  all  the  serfs  were  free.  Some  few 
landowners  gave  liberty  to  their  serfs  because  they  knew 
that  free  laborers  do  more  and  better  work  than  serfs.  The 
king  was  always  ready  to  help  the  serf  to  freedom,  because 
he  wanted  to  weaken  the  unruly  nobles  by  taking  their 
laborers  from  them.  But  possibly  the  strongest  friend  of 
the  unfreed  workers  was  the  church.  On  church  lands  the 
tenants  or  serfs  received  kind  treatment,  and  ofttimes  they 
were  set  free.  The  clergy  also  urged  the  nobles  to  do  like- 
wise. Lords  who  were  old  and  near  their  deathbed  fre- 
quently granted  liberty  to  their  serfs  as  a  peace  offering  to 
heaven. 

The  King  and  the  Serf.  —  Kings,  in  order  to  get  money, 
often  sold  freedom  to  all  toilers  on  lands  belonging  to  the 


RESULTS   OF   THE   CRUSADES 


231 


crown ;  but  sometimes  the  price  was  so  high  that  the  tenants 
refused  to  take  advantage  of  the  offer.  However,  serfs  and 
vassals  no  longer  had  to  grind  their  corn  in  the  lord's  mill, 
to  crush  their  grapes  in  his  wine  press,  or  to  bake  their 
bread  in  his  oven,  every  time  paying  toll  to  him.  They 
became  more  and  more  subject  to  the  king's  laws  and  less 
to  those  of  their  lord.  In  this  way  the  king  and  the  central 
government  were  growing  stronger  at  the  expense  of  the 
nobles,  and  finally  the  serf  became  a  free  laborer,  working 
for  wages. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  were  the  Christians  surprised  in  what  they  found  in  the 
Holy  Land?  2.  Tell  about  the  returning  knights.  3.  Who  was 
more  highly  civilized  at  this  time,  Europe  or  the  Arabs  ?     4.   Why  ? 

5.  What  effect  did  the  Crusades  have  upon  ships  and  navigation? 

6.  Describe  the  early  compass  and  tell  what  good  it  did.  7.  How 
were  goods  transported  in  those  days  ?  8.  Were  foreign  wares  costly  ? 
9.  Why  ?  10.  Name  the  chief  spices  obtained  from  the  East  and  tell 
how  each  was  used.  11.  Tell  about  the  Poles.  12.  What  made 
them  risk  the  dangers  of  distant  countries?  13.  Do  people  visit  wild 
lands  to-day  for  the  same  or  for  different  purposes  ?  14.  Tell  about 
the  crossbow  and  gunpowder.  15.  What  change  did  gunpowder 
make  in  the  world?  16.  Tell  how  you  think  the  first  gun  was  in- 
vented. 17.  Discuss  the  windmill.  18.  How  do  you  think  it  was 
first  invented  or  thought  out  ?  19.  How  did  the  Crusades  affect  the 
kings  in  Europe?  20.  The  trading  classes  or  towns?  21.  Why 
was  the  king  friendly  to  the  towns?  22.  What  change  now  came 
about  for  the  serfs?  23.  Who  was  now  growing  stronger  and  who 
weaker  ? 


CHAPTER  XVII 
THE    GROWTH    OF   FRANCE 

The  King  a  Figurehead.  —  We  have  seen  that  in  the 
feudal  times  France  was  broken  up  into  a  great  many  little 
districts.  In  each  of  them  a  count  or  duke  or  other  noble 
ruled  like  a  king,  paying  no  attention  whatever  to  the  real 
sovereign  at  Paris,  because  he  had  lost  nearly  all  of  his 
power.  Some  of  these  dukes  and  counts  were  stronger  than 
the  monarch  himself,  and  they  did  not  hesitate  to  make  war 
upon  him.  Things  had  come  to  such  a  pass  that  it  was 
scarcely  safe  for  the  king  to  travel  about  freely  over  France. 

The  Country  Divided.  —  There  was  not  only  a  large 
number  of  feudal  states,  which  were  practically  independ- 
ent, but  the  people  of  these  fiefs  or  duchies  usually  spoke 
different  French  dialects.  They  had  different  laws,  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  money,  and,  of  course,  separate  rulers. 
What  was  needed  was  a  strong  king  to  mold  these  many 
unlike  people  into  a  united  nation  with  one  language,  one 
system  of  laws,  and  one  ruler.  The  church  was  glad  to 
offer  aid  to  any  king  strong  enough  to  protect  both  the 
churches  and  the  people  against  the  greedy  and  wicked 
nobles. 

The  Capetian  Kings.  —  During  the  stormy  feudal  age 
Charlemagne's  crown  had  fallen  to  a  new  family,  the  Cape- 
tians,  who  were  to  rule  France  for  eight  hundred  years. 
The  early  Capetians  came  into  power  in  Paris,  because  they 
fought  off  the  Northmen  bravely  from  the  Seine  and  Loire 
valleys. 

232 


THE   GROWTH  OF  FRANCE  233 

Dividing  up  the  King's  Duchy.  —  But  some  of  these 
Capetian  kings  did  not  have  a  very  firm  hold  upon  their 
own  duchy.  Certain  haughty  barons,  even  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Paris,  had  built  strong  castles,  and  defied  the 
king  in  his  own  province.  They  boldly  plundered  the 
merchants  and  peasants  on  church  lands,  and  often  openly 
treated  the  king  with  contempt.  They  meant  to  become 
independent  of  the  king,  just  as  the  greater  barons  had 
done  all  over  France. 

Louis  the  Fighter. — However,  there  came  a  king  at  last, 
who  was  stronger  than  the  rulers  before  him.  This  king, 
Louis  the  Fighter,  resolved  to  bring  his  own  duchy,  at 
least,  into  better  obedience.  With  this  solid  support  he 
hoped  to  build  up  a  great,  united  France  out  of  the  many 
fragments.  When  he  was  but  twenty  years  old,  he  made 
war  upon  the  unruly  barons  of  his  duchy  and  kept  it  up 
until  his  death.  He  captured  their  castles,  pulled  them 
down,  and  threw  the  barons  into  prison.  After  this  his 
word  was  law  throughout  his  own  duchy,  and  the  dues  and 
rents  from  his  vassals  all  came  into  his  own  hands  instead 
of  going  to  the  feudal  lords. 

Fighting  the  Greater  Dukes.  —  With  this  extra  rent  and 
united  support,  Louis  now  felt  strong  enough  to  make  war 
upon  some  of  the  greater  dukes  and  counts  of  France. 
These  noblemen  called  him  king  and  owed  him  allegiance, 
but  they  utterly  refused  to  obey  him.  One  of  them  was 
the  Duke  of  Normandy,  who  had  conquered  England,  and 
had  become  the  English  king ;  but  he  still  held  a  large  part 
of  the  land  of  western  France  as  a  vassal  of  the  French 
king.  The  English  kingdom,  with  the  duchy  of  Normandy, 
fell  to  the  succeeding  sovereigns  of  England.  Louis  could 
not  make  much  headway  against  the  English  king,  who  was 
aided  by  the  German  emperor  and  other  allies. 


234    DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

King  Henry  of  England.  —  Henry  II,  who  now  became 
king  of  England,  actually  gained  territory  in  France, 
for  he  had  married  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  and  thus  had 
added  nearly  one  fourth  of  France  to  what  he  had  already 
held  as  Duke  of  Normandy.  In  fact  Henry  of  England 
now  ruled  over  three  times  as  much  territory  in  France  as 
did  the  French  king. 

Another  Strong  French  King.  —  Louis  the  Fighter  had 
left  his  own  duchy  united  and  strong  as  a  starting  point 
for  his  successors.  The  French  crown  fell,  a  few  years  later, 
to  Louis's  grandson,  Philip  Augustus,  who  made  up  his 
mind  to  extend  the  boundaries  of  his  duchy  by  seizing  other 
fiefs  and  driving  out  the  feudal  lords.  Philip  was  a  great 
king.  He  knew  what  to  do  and  how  to  do  it,  besides  having 
the  patience  to  wait  until  the  time  was  ripe.  He  was  only 
fifteen  years  old  when  he  took  the  crown,  but  in  six  years 
he  had  beaten  the  feudal  barons,  and  had  annexed  to  his 
royal  domains  three  great  counties;  and  before  long  he 
forced  Henry  II,  one  of  England's  strongest  kings,  to  give 
to  him  another  big  county  in  France. 

A  Weak  English  King.  —  After  the  short  rule  of  Richard 
the  Crusader,  the  English  crown  fell  to  John,  a  weak  and 
good-for-nothing  king ;  and  Philip's  hour  had  come.  He  re- 
solved to  drive  John  from  his  French  domains.  A  quarrel 
was  easily  hatched ;  and  Philip  won  a  glorious  victory,  taking 
from  John  several  large  French  provinces/but  not  all  of  them. 

France  Nearly  United.  —  Thus  Philip  had  multiplied  by 
three  the  territory  of  the  French  crown,  and  his  people  were 
wild  with  joy.  They  began  to  feel  proud  of  their  name  and 
to  long  for  a  great  united  nation.  Later  kings  gained  other 
territory  from  the  vassal  barons,  and  after  a  time,  all  France, 
save  what  was  still  held  by  the  English  crown,  was  united 
under  the  French  king. 


THE   GROWTH   OF   FRANCE  235 

The  French  Kings  Hold  Their  Grip. —  The  kings  of 
France  not  only  won  new  territory,  but  they  planned  to 
keep  a  firm  hold  upon  all  the  distant  provinces,  so  that 
the  feudal  nobles  might  not  again  seize  power.  '  How  could 
the  king  make  his  power  felt  so  far  from  his  capital  ?  Philip 
solved  the  problem  in  this  way.  He  appointed  agents 
to  look  after  his  affairs  in  the  distant  provinces.  He  kept 
transferring  these  men  from  one  region  to  another  at  regu- 
lar times,  for  fear  they  might  become"  too  well  acquainted 
with  the  feudal  barons  and  plot  with  them  against  him. 
In  this  way  the  agents  were  held  under  strict  control  by 
the  king,  and  were  loyal  to  him. 

The  Work  of  the  King's  Agent.  —  In  the  district  to 
which  he  was  sent  the  agent  was  to  act  for  the  king,  to  see 
that  the  king's  laws  were  obeyed,  and  that  the  taxes  were 
paid  into  the  royal  hands.  He  was  a  kind  of  royal  judge, 
too.  Thus  these  agents  helped  the  king  to  make  his  power 
felt  everywhere  in  the  land,  and  sometimes  they  even  helped 
to  add  new  territory  to  the  king's  domains. 

The  Noble  St.  Louis.  —  The  grandson  of  Philip  was 
also  a  noble  and  good  king,  though  he  was  not  a  great 
fighter.  He  did  not  gain  territory,  but  neither  did  he  lose 
any,  save  what  he  gave  back  to  Henry  of  England,  because 
he  believed  that  his  grandfather  had  seized  it  unjustly. 
His  victories  were  victories  of  peace;  and  he  was  called 
St.  Louis  because  he  was  so  just  and  fair,  not  only  to  his 
friends,  but  to  his  enemies.  Louis  did  not  hesitate  to  oppose 
the  bishops  and  the  popes  when  he  thought  that  they  were 
wrong.  He  believed  that  what  was  right  should  always  be 
done,  no  matter  who  suffered  ;  so  he  punished  the  nobles  of 
highest  rank  or  even  his  nearest  friends,  if  they  committed 
a  wrong.  He  even  punished  his  loyal  officers  if  they  did 
an  injustice   in   trying   to  advance    the  king's  interests. 


236     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

St.  Louis  was  ambitious  to  have  peace  and  justice  prevail 
in  every  province.  Philip  had  gathered  in  all  the  fragments 
of  France,  and  St.  Louis  wished  to  bind  all  these  parts  of 
the  kingdom  firmly  together  under  himself. 

The  King's  Fairness  Makes  Friends.  —  As  the  king's 
power  grew  and  his  territory  expanded,  the  feudal  lords 
began  to  show  greater  respect  for  the  king's  supreme  court 
at  Paris,  and  to  obey  more  willingly  the  decisions  of  that 
court.  So  fair  and  just  was  St.  Louis  that  many  barons 
were  glad  to  have  him  settle  their  disputes,  and  his  court 
at  Paris  became  popular. 

Keeping  Peace  and  Order.  —  There  was  another  thing 
that  Louis  the  Saint  wished  very  much  to  do  in  order  to 
make  his  power  everywhere  complete.  This  was  to  es- 
tablish in  all  the  provinces  national  courts,  or  king's  courts, 
which  should  be  higher  than  the  feudal  courts  of  the  lords. 
In  this  way  the  king  could  enforce  peace  and  order,  and 
do  away  with  all  petty  private  wars  between  the  lords  and 
vassals ;  for  we  must  remember  that  fighting  had  been  the 
chief  business  of  the  nobles  for  centuries,  and  they  felt 
that  days  of  peace  were  just  so  many  days  lost.  We  must 
also  remember  that  the  merchants  and  the  towns  desired 
peace  very  much,  and  for  it  they  were  willing  to  pay  taxes 
to  the  king  to  be  used  for  his  standing  army. 

The  King's  Courts  Win.  —  The  king's  agents  in  the 
district  provinces  were  called  upon  more  and  more  to  settle 
disputes  between  the  quarrelsome  lords  and  vassals,  and 
thus  much  of  their  time  was  taken  up  as  king's  judges  in 
these  lawsuits.  Soon  there  came  to  be  a  king's  court  in 
every  province.  After  a  time  these  subordinate  king's 
courts  were  looked  upon  as  better  than  the  old  feudal  courts 
because  the  judges  were  fair  and  just,  and  because  the  king 
forced  the  people  to  obey  the  court's  orders. 


THE   GROWTH   OF   FRANCE  237 

Carrying  a  Dispute  to  a  Higher  Judge.  —  One  more 
important  thing  happened,  which  made  the  king's  courts 
very  popular.  It  was  this:  when  two  men  got  into  a 
quarrel  over  property,  they  took  their  dispute  to  the  king's 
court  in  the  province  for  a  settlement.  If  either  of  the 
men  were  not  satisfied  with  the  court's  decision,  he  might 
carry  the  lawsuit  to  the  king's  supreme  court  at  Paris  and 
get  another  trial  with,  perhaps,  a  different  decision.  This 
is  called  appealing  a  case  to  a  higher  court.  A  case  could 
not  only  be  appealed  from  one  king's  court  to  a  higher 
king's  court,  but  the  king  could  force  the  unwilling  feudal 
barons  to  permit  any  one  to  appeal  from  the  feudal  court 
to  the  king's  court.  This  right  of  appeal  the  king  labored 
very  earnestly  to  bring  about;  and  when  it  came,  it  did 
away  entirely  with  the  independence  of  feudal  lords,  and 
created  much  more  respect  for  the  king. 

Studying  Roman  Law.  —  Another  thing  that  added 
much  to  the  power  of  the  French  king  was  the  study  of 
Roman  law.  The  trained  lawyers  of  France  were  studying 
Roman  law  very  diligently ;  for  here,  we  know,  they  found 
the  best  system  of  law  that  the  world  had  ever  seen.  But 
the  laws  of  the  Roman  empire  were  all  framed  upon  the 
idea  that  the  Roman  emperor  was  the  supreme  head  of  the 
state.  He  was  the  king,  the  lawmaker,  and  the  judge, 
all  in  one,  and  the  people  of  the  Roman  empire  had  no 
share  and  no  voice  in  their  government. 

Roman  Laws  Copied  in  France.  —  Now  French  lawyers, 
trained  in  the  laws  of  Rome,  brought  these  same  ideas  into 
the  courts  of  the  king  of  France.  The  king  liked  the  ideas 
and  was  very  glad  indeed  to  appoint  the  lawyers  trained 
in  such  manner  as  his  judges.  So  great  was  the  influence 
of  these  lawyers  that  after  a  time  the  king  of  France  be- 
came an  absolute  monarch.     The  French  people,  like  the 


238     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

people  of  Rome,  came  to  have  no  rights  and  no  power  of 
deciding  how  they  should  be  ruled. 

The  King  Holds  the  Nation's  Pocketbook.  —  The  king 
not  only  made  all  the  laws  and  appointed  all  the  judges, 
but  the  time  came  when  he  levied  all  the  taxes  upon  the 
people  of  France,  and  collected  the  money  through  his 
agents  without  consulting  the  people.  As  usual  the  king 
hired  a  standing  army  with  these  taxes,  which  he  used  to 
make  the  people  obey  him.  They  were  thus  forced  to  hold 
their  peace,  leaving  him  free  to  do  as  he  wished.  The 
king  was  now  all  powerful,  with  the  people  practically  his 
slaves.  However,  the  people  were  happier  than  in  the 
feudal  age  when  there  was  continued  fighting.  This  abso- 
lute rule  is  very  different  from  the  government  that  grew 
up  in  England.  There  the  people  insisted  on  having  a 
voice  in  the  making  of  laws  and  some  way  of  checking  the 
taxes  that  they  were  to  pay. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Compare  the  French  king's  power  with  that  of  his  nobles. 
2.  Was  this  a  good  thing  ?  3.  Why,  or  why  not  ?  4.  How  did  the 
Capetian  house  come  into  power  in  Paris?  5.  What  good  did 
Louis  the  Fighter  do  for  his  kingdom  ?  6.  How  did  France  get  into 
trouble  with  England?  7.  Tell  about  Philip  Augustus  and  King 
John  of  England.  8.  What  good  things  did  Philip  do  for  his  kingdom? 
9.  How  did  the  king  make  the  distant  province  obey  him?  10.  Tell 
about  St.  Louis.  11.  Why  was  it  hard  to  be  a  good  man  in  those 
days?  12.  Was  the  king's  court  a  good  thing  for  the  people? 
13.  Why?  14.  What  changes  came  about  because  of  studying  Ro- 
man law?  15.  Why  do  people  pay  taxes  to-day?  16.  What  was 
the  money  used  for  in  those  days?  17.  How  did  the  government 
in  France  differ  from  that  in  England  ? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
THE   COMING    OF   THE   NORTHMEN 

Northmen  in  France.— At  about  the  time  that  King  Alfred 
was  struggling  to  save  England  from  the  Northmen  these 
same  sea  wolves  were  also  plundering  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  channel  in  France.  One  of  these  pirate  bands  was 
led  by  a  chieftain  named  Rolf,  or  Rollo.  He  was  a  man  of 
great  stature,  powerful  and  barbarous.  It  is  said  that 
there  was  no  horse  in  Norway  tall  enough  to  lift  Rolf's 
feet  from  the  ground  as  he  rode.  That  is  why  he  was 
called  Rolf  the  Walker. 

Normans  in  Normandy.  —  The  king  of  France  was  no 
match  for  Rolf  and  his  fierce  sea  rovers.  So  the  French 
king  made  a  treaty  with  the  Northman,  giving  him  lands 
about  the  mouth  of  the  Seine  River.  In  return  for  these 
lands  Rolf  was  to  protect  the  Franks  from  other  bands 
of  Northmen.  Rolf  called  his  new  province  upon  the  Seine 
Normandy,  and  his  people  Normans.  Hither  came  many 
of  his  kinsmen  from  the  sea  until  a  large  district  was  occu- 
pied by  them.  They  intermarried  with  the  earlier  inhabit- 
ants, accepted  the  Christian  faith,  and  gradually  took  up 
the  language  of  the  Franks. 

William  the  Great.  —  Rolf  was  followed  a  hundred  years 
later  by  another  strong  Duke  of  Normandy,  called  by  men 
of  his  own  day  William  the  Great.  Later  the  English 
named  him  William  the  Conqueror.  It  was  said  that 
no  knight  under  heaven  was  his  equal.  No  man  could 
bend  his  bow,  and  the  blows  of  his  mace  were  fatal.     So 

239 


240     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 


powerful  and  so  fierce  was  he,  that  none  dared  resist  his 
iron  will. 

Putting   Normandy  in   Order.  —  William  was  troubled 
for  many  years  by  the  robber  lords  of  his  duchy.     His  very 

kinsfolk  made 
war  on  him,  but 
two  great  vic- 
tories brought 
them  all  to  his 
feet.  Some  of 
his  enemies  died 
in  his  dungeons, 
while  others  were 
driven  into  exile. 
Thus  Normandy 
settled  down  at 
last  to  peace  and 
order. 

Harold  and 
William  Rivals. 
—  Edward  the 
Saint,  who  was 
then  king  of 
England,  had  no 
children.  He 
was  a  kinsman 
of  William  of 
Normandy,  and 
on  one  occasion,  he  had  promised  his  crown  at  his  death  to 
the  Norman  duke.  But  there  was  a  great  English  noble- 
man named  Harold,  who  also  had  hopes  of  gaining  the 
English  throne.  It  is  said  that  when  Harold  was  once 
cruising  in  the  channel,  a  storm  drove  him  upon  the  French 


Norman  Soldiers. 


THE   COMING   OF   THE   NORTHMEN  241 

coast,  and  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  Duke  William,  his  rival. 
William  ordered  Harold  to  swear  solemnly  to  aid  him  to  the 
English  throne  upon  the  death  of  King  Edward.  Harold 
was  unwilling  to  give  up  his  own  chances.  "  Swear  or  die," 
said  the  stern  William ;  so  Harold  took  the  oath. 

Harold  Receives  the  Crown.  —  Now  when  King  Edward 
died,  he  named  Harold  as  his  successor,  in  spite  of  the  prom- 
ises both  had  made  to  William.  Harold  thought  it  was 
his  duty  to  accept  the  English  crown.  William  was  furi- 
ous at  what  he  called  Harold's  treachery,  and  prepared  for 
war.  Gathering  an  army  of  steel-clad  knights,  he  crossed 
the  channel  and  gave  battle  to  the  English  army  under 
Harold  at  Hastings  (1066). 

Battle  of  Hastings.  —  In  the  midst  of  the  fight  the  Nor- 
mans were  being  worsted,  and  the  cry  arose  that  their 
Duke  had  fallen.  "  I  live,"  shouted  William  as  he  tore  off 
his  helmet,  "  and  by  God's  help  will  conquer  yet."  When 
he  found  that  he  could  not  break  the  firm  English  line  by 
fierce  charging,  he  pretended  to  flee,  hoping  to  draw  the 
enemy  after  him  and  thus  to  throw  their  ranks  into  disorder. 
When  they  followed,  William  turned  on  them ;  and  Harold 
fell  pierced  by  an  arrow,  while  his  army  was  put  to  flight. 
Then  William  the  Conqueror  "  pitched  his  tent  on  the  very 
spot  where  his  rival  had  fallen,  and  sat  down  to  eat  and 
drink  among  the  dead."  London  opened  her  gates  to  the 
Conqueror,  and  William  was  soon  crowned  king  of  England. 

Seizing  Great  Estates.  —  William  claimed  to  be  the 
rightful  successor  to  the  crown.  Those  who  opposed  him  he 
considered  traitors  and  seized  their  estates.  Nearly  all  the 
English  nobles,  at  one  time  or  another,  rose  up  against  the 
Conqueror,  but  in  vain.  They  were  either  killed  or  driven 
into  exile,  and  their  great  estates  fell  into  William's  hands  as 
king.     The  small  landholders,  however,  were  not  disturbed. 


242     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

The  Feudal  System  in  England.  —  In  order  to  hold  his 
throne  William  must  have  an  army  ready  at  his  call  to  put 
down  the  many  revolts  against  him.  How  could  he  build 
up  and  maintain  a  loyal  army?  He  decided  to  distribute 
the  great  estates  among  his  faithful  Norman  followers,  on 
condition  that  they  would  muster  in  arms  when  summoned 
by  him.  Even  the  poorest  Norman  soldier  now  received 
a  large  amount  of  land  and  rose  to  wealth  and  power  as  a 
vassal  of  the  king.  The  large  holdings  of  land  were  again 
divided  by  the  king's  vassals  among  their  tenants  on  the 
same  terms  of  service  to  them.  In  this  manner,  you  see, 
William  introduced  the  feudal  system  into  England.  This 
was  the  only  way  known  to  him  of  keeping  control  of  his 
subjects  or  obtaining  an  army  when  he  needed  one. 

How  William  Gets  a  Firm  Grip.  —  But  William  remem- 
bered how  many  years  of  righting  it  took  to  put  down  his 
proud  feudal  lords  in  Normandy  who  were  struggling  to 
become  independent.  He  feared  his  new  Norman-English 
nobles  might  also  desire  to  become  separate  kings  on  their 
own  estates,  and  he  resolved  to  prevent  this  evil.  When  he 
gave  out  a  great  English  estate,  he  did  not  give  it  all  to  one 
noble.  He  divided  each  estate,  giving  to  one  only  a  small 
share.  Then  far  away,  in  some  other  part  of  the  kingdom, 
he  gave  this  same  noble  another  strip,  and  elsewhere,  per- 
haps, another.  So  that  every  noble's  land  was  in  small 
sections,  widely  scattered,  a  farm  here  and  another  farm 
miles  away.  Now  the  noble  could  not  become  an  in- 
dependent king  if  he  wanted  to.  Thus  William,  by  one 
brilliant  stroke,  destroyed  the  worst  danger  of  feudalism. 

Swearing  Loyalty  to  the  King.  —  William  did  another 
thing  to  hold  a  check  upon  his  nobles.  In  France,  you  re- 
member, the  vassals  of  a  lord  always  took  a  solemn  oath  to 
tight  for  him  against  all  enemies  and  even  against  the  king. 


THE   COMING   OF   THE   NORTHMEN  243 

William  overcame  this  danger  by  making  every  landholder, 
in  addition  to  the  oath  of  fealty  to  his  lord,  swear  loyalty 
directly  to  him  as  king. 

A  Norman  Sheriff  Over  Each  County.  —  In  order  to 
keep  his  grip  upon  the  more  distant  counties,  the  king 
appointed  sheriffs  to  look  after  his  interests  just  as  the 
agents  of  the  French  king  did,  and  naturally  these  offices 
were  filled  by  Normans.  In  many  places  William  built 
strong  castles  and  manned  them  with  his  knights,  to  keep 
his  people  in  order  better. 

Stamping  Out  Feudal  Courts.  —  Instead  of  allowing 
independent  feudal  courts  to  grow  up  as  had  happened 
upon  the  continent,  William  kept  the  Anglo-Saxon  courts, 
and  above  them  he  placed  his  own  king's  court.  Cases 
at  law  might  be  appealed  from  these  lower  courts  to  the 
king's  court,  as  was  done  in  France.  Thus,  you  see,  the 
king  was  making  his  own  power  very  strong  indeed. 

The  Crown  Lands.  —  We  must  notice  three  more  plans  of 
William's  to  strengthen  his  power.  He  did  not  by  any 
means  give  away  all  the  lands  that  he  had  seized,  but  kept 
very  large  tracts  as  crown  lands,  so  that  he  might  have 
money  or  dues  coming  in  from  them  all  the  time  to  fill  his 
treasury  and  to  pay  his  officers  and  knights. 

Getting  Church  Support.  —  William  also  wished  to  win 
the  support  of  the  church.  So  he  put  aside  all  the  English 
clergy  —  priests,  abbots,  bishops,  even  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  —  and  put  Norman  clergymen  into  their 
places.     Can  you  think  why  ? 

Old  Taxes.  —  No  king  can  be  strong  without  money  to 
pay  his  officers  and  keep  up  his  court.  The  question  of 
taxes  has  always  caused  much  strife.  Long  before  William 
the  Conqueror  invaded  England,  the  people  had  been  asked 
by  their  king  and  Witan  to  pay  a  sum  of  money  to  buy  off 


244     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

the  Danes  whose  raids  could  not  be  checked.  This  money 
that  every  landowner  had  to  pay  was  called  Danegeld  or 
Dane  tax.  But  the  Danes  kept  coming  and  the  tax  was 
called  for  again  and  again.  So  the  people  were  accustomed 
to  paying  out  money  to  the  government  as  taxes. 

The  Domesday  Book.  —  William  wished  to  know  how 
much  land  every  man  held,  so  that  he  might  spread  such 
a  tax  fairly.  He  therefore  caused  a  record  of  the  property 
of  each  man  in  the  entire  kingdom  to  be  written  down  in  a 
great  book  called  the  Domesday  Book.  He  was  now  able 
to  spread  his  taxes  fairly,  and  he  knew  how  much  money 
could  be  raised  in  this  way  without  ruining  his  subjects. 

Strong  Kings  and  a  United  Country.  —  While  other 
countries  of  Europe  were  still  broken  up  into  small  separate 
provinces,  each  with  its  earl  or  count  or  duke,  and  each 
almost  independent  of  its  king,  England,  we  see,  was 
bound  together  firmly  under  a  strong  king.  So  for  several 
centuries  there  was  more  peace  and  happiness  in  England 
than  anywhere  in  Europe,  for  William  was  followed  by  a 
line  of  able  kings  who  were  successful,  although  they  were 
sometimes  cruel. 

Other  Gains.  —  The  Norman  conquest  brought  England 
into  closer  relation  with  the  south  of  Europe  and  its  grow- 
ing trade  and  town  life.  The  Normans  and  English  were 
Teutons  and  closely  related.  They  gradually  mingled 
and  became  one  people.  The  Norman  nobility,  however, 
continued  for  a  hundred  years  or  more  to  speak  the  Norman- 
French  language.  But  as  the  hatred  between  the  English 
and  the  Normans  died  out  and  as  the  nobles  and  common 
people  mingled  more  and  more,  the  Anglo-Saxon  speech 
won  its  way  among  the  nobles.  In  the  meantime,  however, 
it  had  received  very  many  words  from  the  Norman- French. 
Thus  our  mother  tongue  is  much  richer  and  broader  and 


THE   COMING    OF   THE   NORTHMEN  245 

better  because  of  the  new  element  introduced  by  the  Nor- 
mans. With  the  Normans  came  also  more  learning  and 
refinement,  more  knowledge  of  art  and  architecture,  of 
crafts  and  manual  skill. 

QUESTIONS 

1.   Who  were  the  Northmen?     2.   How  did  they  come  to  settle 
in  France?     3.   Tell  about   William  the  Great  and   his  good  work. 

4.  'How  did  Harold  and  William  come  to  claim  the  crown  of  England  ? 

5.  Tell  about  the  battle  of  Hastings.  6.  What  did  William  do  with 
the  estates  of  the  nobles  in  England  ?  7.  Why  did  he  introduce  the 
feudal  system  into  England  ?  8.  How  did  he  get  a  firm  grip  upon 
England  ?  9.  What  was  the  Domesday  Book  and  what  was  its  use  ? 
10.  Was  the  Norman  conquest  of  England  a  good  thing  for  the  island  ? 
n.   Why,  or  why  not? 


CHAPTER  XIX 

WINNING   ENGLISH   LIBERTY 

Absolute  Rulers.  —  The  English  kings  ruled  the  country 
much  as  they  pleased  for  many  years,  for  neither  the  nobles 
nor  the  people*  had  a  voice  in  the  affairs  of  the  nation. 
Though  the  land  was  both  peaceful  and  prosperous,  the 
nobles  objected  to  the  absolute  rule  of  the  king  over  them, 
and  the  people  resented  the  heavy  taxes  about  which  they 
were  allowed  to  say  nothing;  but  things  went  on  in  this 
way  for  a  hundred  and  fifty  years. 

Hands  of  the  Nobles  Tied.  —  Each  one  of  the  nobles 
would  have  liked  to  become  independent  of  the  king,  as 
were  the  nobles  in  France  and  Germany ;  but  the  lands  of 
the  English  nobility  were  scattered,  and  they  could  not  do 
this.  So  they  said  at  last :  "If  we  can  never  become  in- 
dependent of  the  king,  let  us,  then,  band  together  and  force 
him  to  share  his  government  with  us.  Only  in  this  way 
can  we  check  his  absolute  and  unjust  rule  over  us."  And 
now  came  their  chance,  for  one  of  the  worst  kings  England 
ever  had  came  to  the  throne  —  King  John. 

Loss  of  Normandy.  —  The  people  of  England  soon  found 
John  to  be  a  wretched  tyrant  —  untruthful,  dishonest,  and 
treacherous.  The  new  king  rapidly  lost  the  love  and  even 
the  respect  of  all  classes  of  his  subjects.  So  hated  was  he, 
that  he  was  at  war  with  the  pope,  with  France,  with  Scot- 
land, Ireland,  and  Wales,  all  at  the  same  time.  In  the 
war  with  the  king  of  France,  John  lost  nearly  all  of  the 
English  possessions  in  France,  including  Normandy,  which 

246 


WINNING  ENGLISH  LIBERTY  247 

the  English  kings  had  held  for  a  hundred  and  fifty  years ; 
and  the  people  of  his  kingdom,  whom  he  had  abused  by 
tyranny  and  by  crushing  taxes,  refused  to  help  him. 

John  Like  Other  Tyrants.  —  In  all  ages  it  has  been  the 
habit  of  kings,  who  wish  to  rule  with  an  iron  hand,  to  single 
out  and  throw  into  prison  those  of  their  subjects  who  love 
liberty  and  are  most  likely  to  object  to  harsh  rule.  In 
these  dark  dungeons  the  patriots  lay  for  months  or  even 
years,  without  a  trial.  Sometimes  the  prisoners  were  so 
cruelly  treated  that  they  soon  died,  others  were  murdered 
in  cold  blood  without  excuse.  By  such  inhuman  treat- 
ment, tyrants  frightened  their  subjects  into  obedience  and 
silence.  Rich  men  who  had  become  too  zealous  in  looking 
after  the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  people  were  given  a 
hint  of  the  king's  displeasure  in  the  form  of  a  crushing  fine. 
This,  perhaps,  accomplished  two  things.  It  destroyed  the 
noble's  longing  for  liberty  and  helped  to  fill  the  king's 
empty  purse.  John  was  like  other  tyrants.  He  abused 
his  subjects,  and  those  who  objected  received  more  abuse. 
The  right  to  a  speedy  trial  before  a  fair  jury  cost  our  fore- 
fathers much  in  treasure  and  in  blood  before  it  was  won. 

The  Great  Charter.  —  The  nobles  vowed  that  they  would 
compel  John  to  restore  their  liberties  and  to  give  them  a 
charter  to  which  the  king  must  attach  his  seal,  making  it  a 
law.  The  barons  therefore  gathered  in  arms  and  demanded 
a  charter.  "  Why  do  you  not  ask  for  my  kingdom?" 
cried  John,  in  an  angry  passion,  but  it  was  of  no  use  to  re- 
sist, as  the  people  were  all  against  him.  So  he  met  the 
barons  at  Runnymede  in  1 215  and  signed  the  Great  Charter, 
sometimes  called  the  Magna  Carta. 

The  Liberties  Given  in  the  Charter.  —  John  agreed  in 
the  charter  that  he  would  never  again  put  a  man  in  prison 
and  keep  him  there  without  a  trial  by  a  jury.     Neither 


248     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

would  he  seize  a  freeman's  property  nor  banish  him  without 
a  good  and  lawful  reason.  He  promised  justice  and  fair 
treatment  to  all  his  subjects.  And,  most  important  of  all, 
the  king  agreed  not  to  extort  money  from  his  people  either 
as  fines,  aids,  or  taxes,  without  first  consulting  the  barons 
about  it. 

The  Council  of  Barons.  —  But  nobody  believed  that 
John  could  be  trusted  to  obey  this  charter,  and  so  a  council 
of  twenty-five  barons  was  chosen  to  watch  over  their 
liberties  and  to  declare  war  on  John  if  he  again  started  to 
disobey  the  charter.  "  They  have  given  me  five-and- 
twenty  overkings,"  cried  John  in  a  burst  of  fury,  flinging 
himself  on  the  floor  and  gnawing  sticks  and  straw  in  his 
rage.  John  kept  up  the  fight  against  his  barons  for  a  time, 
but  he  soon  died.  And  every  king  since  has  been  made 
to  promise  to  obey  the  Great  Charter.  It  is  the  foundation 
of  the  liberties  of  all  English-speaking  nations. 

The  King  Who  Broke  the  Charter.  —  The  next  king  was 
Henry  III,  who  reigned  for  more  than  fifty  years.  Henry 
was  not  a  good  king,  and  he  naturally  hated  the  charter, 
since  it  prevented  him  from  doing  as  he  pleased.  After 
a  while  he  began  to  disobey  one  important  law  in  the  char- 
ter. He  forced  dues,  or  taxes,  upon  the  people  without 
asking  the  Great  Council  of  barons.  Moreover  Henry 
sent  judges  over  the  kingdom,  who  fined  rich  people  un- 
justly and  heavily,  merely  to  get  more  money  for  the  greedy 
king.  From  the  cities  and  from  rich  Jews  the  king  de- 
manded gifts,  and  the  people  hardly  dared  to  refuse. 

Reforms  First,  Then  Taxes.  —  This  ill-gotten  money 
was  not  enough  for  the  spendthrift  king  and  his  extravagant 
court.  He  summoned  a  parliament  of  the  Great  Council 
of  barons  and  asked  them  to  tax  the  people.  Henry  asked 
for  a  large  sum  of  money.     But  the  parliament  of  barons 


WINNING   ENGLISH  LIBERTY 


249 


told  him  that  they  would  not  allow  him  one  penny  unless 
he  first  promised  to  cease  his  breaking  of  the  Great  Charter 
and  his  unlawful  fining  of  the  people.  What  could  the  king 
do  ?     He  promised,  and  the  barons  levied  the  taxes  for  him. 


Westminster  Abbey. 


Simon  of  Montf ort.  —  Henry  broke  his  oath,  however, 
within  a  year  and  declared  war  on  the  barons,  though  he 
soon  made  peace  and  again  promised  to  obey.  At  last 
war  broke  out  in  earnest,  and  the  knights  and  barons  under 


250     DAWN  OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

their  splendid  leader,  Simon  of  Montfort,  captured  the 
king  and  put  him  into  prison.  .Simon,  the  patriot,  then 
called  a  general  council,  or  parliament,  to  represent  all 
classes  of  people.  To  this  parliament  he  summoned  not 
only  the  barons,  the  bishops,  and  several  knights  to  speak 
for  the  counties,  but  he  introduced  something  new  by  calling 
upon  the  towns  to  send  representatives.  This  was  the  first 
time  the  towns  had  been  allowed  a  voice  in  the  government. 

A  Great  King.  —  After  a  time  Simon  died,  and  Henry 
patched  up  peace  by  another  promise.  The  people  were 
tired  of  righting,  and  they  endured  the  king  until  his  death 
a  few  years  later.  Following  him  came  a  great  king, 
Edward  I,  who  conquered  Wales  and  Scotland  and  planned 
to  unite  all  the  island  of  Great  Britain  under  one  law  and 
one  king.  Edward  died,  however,  before  he  could  make 
his  hold  upon  Scotland  permanent. 

The  Model  Parliament.  —  In  1295  King  Edward  called 
the  perfect  or  Model  Parliament.  For  a  seat  in  this  body 
the  clergy  had  chosen  their  bishops  and  archbishops  to 
represent  them,  that  is,  to  speak  for  them  and  to  vote  for 
laws  that  were  for  their  best  interests ;  the  chief  barons 
were  also  summoned  to  act  and  speak  for  the  nobility. 
Besides  these  each  county  elected  two  knights  to  represent 
it ;  each  city,  two  citizens ;  and  each  town,  two  burghers. 
And  so  the  common  people  of  the  whole  kingdom  were 
represented  by  those  whom  they  had  chosen  to  go  to  Parlia- 
ment and  to  look  after  their  interests.  Such  was  the  Model 
Parliament,  so  called  because  all  the  later  ones  were  pat- 
terned after  it. 

A  Clever  Idea.  —  This  idea  of  choosing  representatives 
to  act  for  the  many  who  could  not  go  to  act  for  themselves 
was  a  clever  idea  of  the  English.  It  is  the  only  way  for 
the  people  in  a  large  country  to  have  a  voice  in  the  law 


WINNING  ENGLISH  LIBERTY  251 

making.  Had  it  not  been  for  this  plan,  all  the  power  of 
government  would  have  fallen  to  the  king  and  the  rich 
nobles,  and  the  common  people  might  have  suffered  severely 
under  bad  kings. 

Teutons  Love  Their  Freedom.  —  That  is  just  what  hap- 
pened among  the  other  German  nations  who  settled  in 
France  and  Spain.  As  the  small  tribal  kingdoms  united, 
they  copied  their  governments  after  that  of  Rome,  where 
the  emperor  became  very  tyrannical.  In  this  way  the 
French  and  Spanish  lost  their  liberty  and  their  voice  in 
their  governments,  for  they  did  not  build  up  this  plan  of 
electing  representatives.  We  shall  look  to  England  as  the 
place  where  the  people  learned  how  to  rule  themselves 
through  their  chosen  representatives. 

Two  Houses.  —  The  Barons  or  Lords,  after  a  time,  met 
separately  and  were  called  the  House  of  Lords,  while  the 
elected  knights  and  citizens  also  met  in  a  separate  room 
and  were  called  the  House  of  Commons,  because  they  were 
supposed  to  act  for  the  good  of  the  common  people.  Frpm 
this  time  on  the  parliament  used  its  right  to  vote  or  to  re- 
fuse taxes  as  a  huge  club  to  force  the  successive  kings  to  give 
them  other  powers,  or  a  larger  share  in  the  government. 

The  King's  Need  of  Money.  —  A  great  war  soon  broke 
out  with  France  over  the  lands  still  held  there  by  the  Eng- 
lish king.  This  war  lasted,  off  and  on,  for  about  a  hundred 
years.  The  heavy  expense  of  keeping  an  army  in  France 
forced  the  English  king  to  call  upon  his  parliament  again 
and  again  for  money.  The  king  felt  that  he  would  do  al- 
most anything  rather  than  lose  his  French  possessions ;  but 
the  English  people  no  longer  cared  for  the  lands  in  France. 

Curbing  the  King.  —  So  when  the  king  asked  parliament 
for  more  taxes,  they  demanded  first  to  know  what  use  he 
was  going  to  make  of  the  money.     The  king  was  angry, 


252      DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

but  he  had  to  yield,  for  there  was  no  other  way  to  get 
money.  After  a  while  parliament  would  vote  money  only 
for  certain  uses,  and  before  voting  any  more  they  made 
the  king  show  how  he  spent  the  last  allowance. 

Another  Step.  —  Again  parliament  used  the  tax  as  a 
club ;  for  when,  on  a  certain  occasion,  the  king  needed  more 
money,  parliament  said,  "  Not  unless  you  first  dismiss  and 
punish  your  wicked  and  cruel  officers,"  and  the  king  had 
to  do  it.  At  last,  by  always  holding  this  tax  club  over  the 
king's  head,  parliament  gained  so  much  power  that  it  un- 
crowned a  wicked  king  and  chose  another  in  his  stead. 

Becoming  a  Republic.  —  In  this  way  parliament  came  to 
control,  not  only  the  making  of  laws,  but  even  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  king's  ministers  or  officers  who  ruled  over  the 
people.  Wicked  officers  of  the  king  were  brought  before 
parliament,  where  they  were  judged  and  punished.  At 
the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  people  of  England  had  gone 
a  long  way  toward  freedom  and  toward  self-government. 
Though  there  was  still  a  king,  he  was  shorn  of  much  of 
his  power,  and  the  government  was  becoming  more  like  a 
republic,  where  people  rule  themselves. 

QUESTIONS 

i.  What  is  an  absolute  ruler?  2.  How  were  the  hands  of  the 
nobles  tied?  3.  Who  lost  the  English  king's  provinces  in  France? 
4.  Why?  5.  How  was  John  like  other  tyrants?  6.  Tell  about  the 
Great  Charter.  7.  Was  it  a  good  or  a  bad  thing?  8.  Why? 
9.  What  is  a  trial  by  jury?  10.  Would  you  rather  be  tried  by  a 
jury  or  by  a  judge  ?  11.  Why  ?  12.  Who  broke  the  Great  Charter  ? 
13.  Why?  14.  How  did  the  king  get  money  besides  levying  taxes ? 
15.  Tell  why  we  should  be  grateful  to  Simon  of  Monfort.  16.  What 
was  the  Model  Parliament  and  why  was  it  called  model  ?  17.  What 
is  meant  by  a  representative  government  ?  18.  Is  it  better  or  worse 
than  a  monarchy?  19.  Why  or  why  not?  20.  How  did  the 
English  people  force  their  kings  to  share  the  government  with  them  ? 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE   RISE    OF    SPAIN 

The  Fall  of  the  Goths.  —  When,  in  711,  the  Gothic  king, 
Roderick,  was  beaten  and  slain  by  the  Arabs,  and  his  army 
was  scattered  to  the  winds,  the  Goths  gave  up  hope  of 
saving  Spain,  and  the  Moors  quickly  overran  it.  The 
great  cities  yielded  without  a  blow. 

Moors  Kind  to  the  Christians.  —  How  many  Goths 
remained  among  the  Moors  we  do  not  know,  but  the  Moors 
were  very  kind  to  those  who  wished  to  stay.  They  allowed 
them  to  keep,  not  only  their  homes  and  property,  but  their 
religion  and  forms  of  worship.  Even  in  Cordova,  the  Moor- 
ish capital,  there  remained  seven  Christian  churches  for 
the  use  of  the  people.  In  addition  to  all  this  the  Arabs 
gave  the  Christians  the  right  to  live  under  their  own  laws 
and  officers,  paying  only  a  light  tax,  no  heavier  than  was 
required  of  the  Arabs  about  them. 

Moors  and  Goths  Mixing.  —  So  it  is  believed  that  many 
of  the  Gothic  subjects,  especially  the  serfs  and  common 
people,  besides  a  considerable  number  of  nobles,  preferred 
to  remain  in  their  homes  under  Moorish  rule  rather  than 
to  live  a  life  of  toil  and  hardship  in  the  mountains.  In 
after  years,  many  of  their  children  accepted  the  Moham- 
medan religion  and  mixed  freely  with  the  Moors,  inter- 
marrying with  them. 

What  Became  of  the  Gothic  Nation.  —  However,  the 
stoutest  and  most  independent  of  the  Gothic  host  refused 
to  submit  to  their  Arab  conquerors.     Some  fled  to  France, 

253 


254     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

Italy,  and  Britain,  while  others,  true  and  devoted  to  their 
country,  retreated  behind  the  mountains  of  northern  Spain. 
The  Saracens  did  not  consider  these  mountain  provinces 
worth  conquering.  Even  the  barren  plains  near  these 
mountains  were  not  occupied,  except  by  military  camps. 

The  Mountain  Kingdom.  —  Here  among  the  rocks  and 
crags  of  Asturias,  the  Goths  and  their  followers  halted. 
They  were  all  equal  now,  for  there  was  land,  such  as  it 
was,  for  everybody.  So  these  Gothic  nobles  mixed  with 
the  slaves  and  common  people  who  came  with  them.  They 
intermarried  and  became  the  ancestors  of  the  modern 
Spaniards. 

Pelayo  and  the  Moors.  —  The  Goths  set  their  backs  to 
the  sea  and  their  faces  toward  their  enemy,  the  Moors,  and 
chose  Pelayo  as  their  king.  When  the  Arabs  heard  of  the 
retreat  of  these  people,  they  sent  an  army  to  subdue  Pelayo 
and  his  mountain  tribe.  They  found  the  chief  and  his 
band  intrenched  in  a  rocky  cavern.  The  Moors  were  badly 
beaten,  and  thereafter  the  Spanish  kingdom  rested  safely 
in  its  rocky  nest.  Hither  came  all  the  Christian  Goths 
who  had  become  dissatisfied  with  the  rule  of  the  Saracens, 
together  with  the  stoutest  and  best  of  the  Gothic  nobles. 

Hard  Life  of  the  Mountaineers.  —  Among  the  barren 
crags  the  Spaniards  lived  their  hard  life,  obtaining  food 
from  hunting,  from  scanty  crops,  and  from  plundering  one 
another  as  well  as  the  people  of  the  Moorish  provinces. 
It  was  a  life  similar  to  that  of  their  ancestors  in  the  Ger- 
man wilderness,  save  that  they  kept  the  Christian  religion. 
They  learned  to  endure  hunger  and  fatigue,  to  live  upon 
plain  and  scanty  food,  and  to  fight  against  odds.  So  they 
became  a  sober,  hardy  race  of  warriors. 

Facing  About.  —  From  their  barren  mountain  tops,  the 
Spaniards  looked  down  upon  the  pleasant  valleys  and  fruit- 


THE   RISE   OF   SPAIN 


255 


256     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

ful  vineyards  of  their  Gothic  ancestors.  They  beheld 
their  holy  Christian  churches  given  to  infidels,  with  the 
hated  crescents  on  the  domes,  where  once  was  the  sacred 
cross.  After  many  years  these  hardy  Spaniards  resolved  to 
quit  the  shelter  of  their  mountains  and  to  lay  hold  upon  the 
lands  of  their  forefathers.  So,  relying  upon  their  strong  right 
arms,  they  descended  to  the  open,  sunny  plains  of  the  Moors. 

Pushing  Back  the  Moors.  —  No  sooner  had  the  Span- 
iards left  the  hill  country  than  they  found  themselves  face 
to  face  with  the  fleet  cavalry  of  the  Moors,  while  they  them- 
selves could  fight  only  on  foot.  The  Arabs  swept  over  the 
country  and  carried  off,  in  a  single  raid,  the  hard-earned 
produce  of  a  whole  season.  But  slowly  they  were  pushed 
back.  As  soon  as  the  Spaniards  reached  a  natural  boundary 
like  a  river  or  a  chain  of  hills,  they  constructed  a  line  of 
fortifications  to  hold  their  Moorish  enemies  in  check. 

Quarreling  Among  Themselves.  —  However,  the  prog- 
ress of  the  Spaniards  in  recovering  Spain  was  slow  indeed. 
As  they  increased  in  numbers  and  spread  out,  they  split 
up  into  several  little  states  or  tribes  with  separate  kings. 
Among  these  petty  Spanish  kings  and  their  warlike  barons 
there  was  bitter  hatred  and  fierce  quarreling.  More 
Christian  blood  was  wasted  in  these  feuds  than  in  all 
the  encounters  with  the  Moors.  On  account  of  this  con- 
tinual fighting  among  themselves  they  made  very  slow 
headway  in  driving  back  the  Mohammedan  Moors. 

Love  of  Freedom.  —  In  each  little  state  the  people  held 
to  their  Gothic  liberties,  their  right  to  choose  their  king,  and 
to  share  in  law  making.  It  is  said  that  they  took  an  oath  of 
loyalty  to  their  chosen  king  after  this  manner  :  "  We,  who 
are  each  of  us  as  good  as  thou,  and  who  together  are  more 
powerful  than  thou,  swear  to  obey  thee  if  thou  dost  obey 
our  laws,  and  if  not,  not." 


THE   RISE   OF   SPAIN  257 

Frontier  Cities  Favored.  —  In  order  to  make  progress 
against  the  Moors  it  was  necessary  to  arm  and  drill  every 
citizen,  and  so  each  warrior  felt  that  he  had  a  right  to  a 
voice  in  the  matter  of  government.  In  order  to  push  back 
the  Arabs  it  was  necessary  to  plant  new  towns  and  forts 
on  the  lands  taken  from  the  Moors  as  well  as  on  the  ex- 
posed frontiers.  To  these  towns  especial  favors  were  given 
in  order  to  attract  settlers  to  them.  So  the  frontier  towns 
obtained  charters  of  liberties,  allowing  them  great  freedom 
in  ruling  themselves. 

A  Voice  in  Law  Making.  —  In  several  kingdoms  the  towns 
sent  representatives  to.  the  law-making  assembly,  which,  in 
Spain,  was  called  the  Cortes.  These  representatives  were 
chosen  not  by  ballot,  but  by  lot.  This  onward  step  toward 
freedom  for  the  people  occurred  long  before  the  Saxons  of 
England  had  developed  the  representative  system. 

Difficulties  in  Uniting.  —  These  jealous  and  warlike  states 
for  centuries  kept  uniting  and  splitting  up,  only  to  join 
again,  in  a  different  way.  The  king  of  one  state  would 
conquer  another  and  take  his  lands,  or,  perhaps,  he  would 
marry  a  princess  or  widowed  queen  of  another  kingdom  and 
thus  enlarge  his  domains.  This  would  soon  have  united 
all  these  various  states  into  one  great  country  had  not  the 
Spanish  rulers  followed  the  practice  of  dividing  up  their 
kingdoms  at  death  among  their  sons.  So  the  struggle  for 
union  had  to  be  fought  over  and  over  again.  However,  the 
little  states  were  slowly  swallowed  up  by  the  larger  ones, 
until,  by  1400,  there  were  three  chief  kingdoms  in  the 
Spanish  peninsula.  They  were  Portugal,  Castile,  and 
Aragon. 

Queen  Isabella's  Suitors.  —  Over  Castile  there  now 
ruled  a  remarkable  queen  named  Isabella,  a  brilliant  and 
charming  woman.     She  had  many  noble  and  royal  suitors 


258     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

from  all  the  courts  of  Europe.  Isabella  declared  she  would 
not  permit  her  kinsmen  to  dictate  to  her,  but  that  she 
would  marry  whom  she  pleased.  Among  her  suitors  was  a 
prince  of  Aragon,  Ferdinand.  To  him  she  gave  her  hand, 
and  it  is  said,  "  never  in  the  annals  of  courtly  marriage  was 
a  match  so  happy  and  so  entirely  blessed." 

Union  and  Peace.  —  Thus  were  united  the  kingdoms  of 
Castile  and  Aragon,  the  two  largest  states  in  Spain,  and  the 
wisest  people  in  both  kingdoms  rejoiced  that  the  time  had 
come  when  wars  and  feuds  might  cease  and  peace  reign. 
Nor  were  they  disappointed. 

Putting  Her  House  in  Order.  —  Isabella  promptly  set  to 
work  to  bring  the  blessings  of  peace  to  her  distracted  king- 
dom of  Castile.  She  compelled  obedience  to  her  laws,  and 
forced  the  great  nobles  to  lay  aside  their  arms  and  to  refer 
their  disputes  to  impartial  judges.  She  tore  down  some 
sixty  of  the  castles,  where  these  fighting  barons  lived.  She 
respected  the  clergy,  but  enforced  obedience  from  them 
too.  Once  when  they  tried  to  shield  a  criminal  because  he 
was  a  churchman,  she  punished  some  of  the  priests  and 
bishops,  and  banished  others  from  the  country.  Feuds  and 
bloodshed  ceased,  and  the  people  believed  the  Golden  Age 
had  returned. 

Ferdinand  a  Strong  King.  —  Ferdinand  did  for  Aragon 
what  Isabella  had  done  for  Castile.  He  curbed  the  warlike 
barons,  and  knit  his  kingdom  firmly  together.  Ferdinand 
was  not  only  a  great  king  and  a  soldier,  but  he  was  a  tactful 
statesman  with  a  clear  head.  He  saw  that  Spain  could 
never  be  great  without  a  strong  central  government.  He 
promptly  made  his  laws  respected  by  the  barons,  and 
did  away  with  feuds  and  private  wars. 

Getting  More  Power.  —  With  their  home  kingdoms  in 
order  and  their  subjects  obedient  and  loyal,  the  king  and 


THE  RISE  OF   SPAIN  259 

queen  had  a  firm  foundation  for  the  future.  Next  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  wished  to  drive  out  the  Moors,  and  thus  join 
together  all  the  fragments  of  the  old  Gothic  kingdom.  So 
they  quietly  and  gradually  stole  away  the  liberties  of  their 
people,  because  if  the  people  had  a  voice  in  the  government, 
they  might  disagree  with  their  rulers  and  hinder  their  plans. 
"  When  anything  needs  to  be  done,"  said  Ferdinand,  "  one 
head  is  better  than  a  thousand  " ;  and  in  his  smooth  and 
crafty  way,  he  contrived  to  take  away  the  rights  of  his 
subjects  and  still  not  come  to  blows  with  them. 

The  People  Losing  Power.  —  Ferdinand  no  longer  called 
upon  the  people  to  send  representatives  to  the  Cortes.  He 
did  not  do  this  all  at  once,  but  slowly,  one  town  or  province 
at  a  time,  upon  one  excuse  or  another.  It  was  not  long 
before  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  were  the  absolute  rulers  of  all 
Spain,  save  what  was  still  held  by  the  Moors.  The  people 
had  no  more  liberties  than  the  people  of  France.  But  the 
king  and  queen  were  good  rulers  and  did  not  mistreat  their 
subjects. 

Knights  of  the  Cross  in  Spain. — After  the  Crusades  the 
knights  from  all  parts  of  Europe  flocked  in  large  numbers  to 
Spain  to  help  fight  the  Moors.  The  pope  lent  his  aid  by 
the  promise  of  paradise  for  those  who  fell  in  battle  with  the 
hated  infidels.  Thus  the  zeal  and  enthusiasm  of  the 
Spaniards  arose  to  a  high  pitch.  They  felt  that  they  were 
fighting,  not  only  their  own  battles,  but  the  battles  for  the 
church  and  for  all  Christian  countries. 

One  Faith.  —  Isabella  and  Ferdinand  saw  that  in  order 
to  make  the  best  headway  in  driving  out  the  Moors  they 
ought  to  keep  their  own  church  above  reproach.  There 
were  in  Spain  many  Jews  who  were  the  richest  ^people 
in  the  land  and  who  did  not  belong  to  the  Catholic  church. 
Then,  too,  there  were  some  Christians  who  refused  to  accept 


260      DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

all  the  teachings  of  the  church.  They  were  called  heretics. 
The  presence  of  these  Jews  and  heretics  did  not  look  well 
in  the  chief  Christian  nation  that  was  carrying  on  war 
against  the  infidel  Moors.  So  Isabella  and  Ferdinand 
decided  to  persecute  all  disbelievers  among  their  subjects. 

Persecution.  —  Heretics  were  to  put  aside  their  peculiar 
beliefs  and  become  loyal  Catholics  or  be  punished  :  and  all 
punishments  in  those  days  were  very  severe.  Isabella  felt 
it  her  duty  to  do  this,  and  she  hoped  it  would  make  all  the 
people  good  Catholics  and  save  their  sinful  souls.  But 
Ferdinand  had  a  lower  purpose.  He  needed  money  to  carry 
on  his  wars  against  the  Moors,  and  this  would  be  an  excuse 
for  robbing  the  rich  Jews  who,  he  knew,  would  never  give 
up  their  Jewish  faith.  In  twelve  years  two  thousand  Jews 
were  burned  at  the  stake,  while  seventeen  thousand  more 
were  exiled  and  their  property  taken  from  them. 

Fighting  the  Moors  Again.  —  Ferdinand  was  content,  for 
he  got  enough  money  to  carry  on  his  war  against  the 
Moors.  The  Moorish  kings  had  been  losing  territory  to  the 
Spaniards,  and  had  been  paying  tribute  to  them  to  prevent 
war.  One  king  of  Granada,  when  asked  for  his  annual 
tribute,  replied  that  "  the  mints  of  Granada  no  longer 
coined  gold  but  steel."  This  haughty  reply  brought  on  a 
war  which  went  on  for  years  with  growing  success  for  the 
Spaniards. 

The  War  Queen.  —  Isabella  was  the  soul  of  this  war. 
Her  object  was  not  to  get  more  territory,  but  to  spread 
the  Catholic  religion.  It  was  for  the  same  desire,  to  extend 
her  faith,  that  she  gave  ear  at  this  time  to  Christopher 
Columbus,  who  visited  her  court,  praying  for  funds  to  make 
a  voyage  westward  to  the  Indies. 

Preparing  Arms  and  Powder.  —  The  Moors  held  strong 
positions  and  were  well  fortified.     The    Spaniards    could 


THE   RISE   OF   SPAIN  261 

not  easily  capture  their  walled  cities.  But  Isabella  sent 
to  England,  France,  and  Germany  for  engineers  and  iron- 
workers. Forges  were  constructed  in  the  Spanish  camps, 
and  materials  were  prepared  for  making  cannons,  balls,  and 
powder.  Large  quantities  of  powder  were  also  imported 
from  abroad.  Thus  Isabella  soon  had  a  train  of  artillery 
better  than  that  of  any  other  ruler  in  Europe. 

The  Early  Cannon.  —  More  than  twenty  cannons  used 
in  one  siege  were  afterwards  used  as  columns  in  the  market 
place  of  one  of  the  captured  towns.  They  were  huge  and 
clumsy,  the  largest 
being  twelve  feet  long. 
They  were  made  of 
iron  bars,  two  inches 
wide  by  twelve  feet 
long  and  held  together 

.  .  Early  Cannon. 

by  iron  belts  and  rings. 

They  were  made  fast  to  the  gun  carriages.  They  could  not 
be  aimed  either  up  or  down,  to  right  or  left,  without  mov- 
ing the  whole  gun  carriage.  They  hurled  balls  of  iron  or 
marble  more  than  a  foot  in  diameter,  which  weighed  one 
hundred  and  seventy-five  pounds.  These  early  cannons 
could  not  fire  more  than  forty  shots  in  one  day,  while  some 
modern  guns  lire  one  thousand  bullets  a  minute. 

Moorish  Days  Numbered.  —  Nevertheless  these  crude 
guns  served  to  batter  down  the  walls  of  forts  and  to  assist 
the  Spaniards  in  capturing  Granada,  the  splendid  capital 
of  the  Moors.  For  eight  hundred  years  the  Moors  had 
possessed  the  fairest  lands  of  the  peninsula,  and  had 
taught  Europe  many  valuable  lessons  in  art,  learning, 
and  crafts;  but  at  last  they  were  to  make  way  for  the 
Spaniard  who  seemed  more  able  to  carry  on  the  work  of 
civilization. 


262     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

Fall  of  Granada.  —  The  Moorish  king  yielded  the  keys  of 
his  beloved  city,  and  the  Christian  army  entered  in  triumph. 
As  the  Moorish  king  rode  away  he  reached  a  hill  from  which 
he  had  his  last  view  of  Granada.  "  He  checked  his  horse, 
and,  as  his  eye  for  the  last  time  wandered  over  the  scenes 
of  his  departed  greatness,  his  heart  swelled,  and  he  burst 
into  tears.  'Alas!'  exclaimed  the  unhappy  exile,  'when 
were  woes  ever  equal  to  mine  ? ' :  The  scene  of  this 
event  is  still  pointed  out  to  the  traveler  by  the  people  of 
the  district ;  and  the  rocky  height  from  which  the  Moorish 
chief  took  his  sad  farewell  is  still  called  "  The  Sigh  of  the 
Moor." 

"There  was  crying  in  Granada  when  the  sun  was  going  down, 

Some  calling  on  the  Trinity,  some  calling  on  Mahoun ; 
Here  passed  away  the  Koran,  there  in  the  cross  was  borne, 

And  here  was  heard  the  Christian  bell,  and  there  the  Moorish  horn ; 
Te  Deum  Laudamus  was  up  the  Alcala  sung. 

Down  from  Alhambra's  minarets  were  all  the  crescents  flung ; 
The  arms  thereon  of  Aragon  and  Castile  they  display ; 

One  king  comes  in  triumph,  one  weeping  goes  away." 

A  United  Spain.  —  By  this  conquest  the  Spanish  gained  a 
large  extent  of  country  with  a  fruitful  and  temperate  climate 
besides  a  long  coast  line  dotted  with  good  harbors.  The 
scattered  fragments  of  the  ancient  Visigothic  kingdom 
were  again  united  in  one  monarchy,  and  Spain  soon  rose  to 
the  level  of  the  greatest  European  countries. 

One  People.  —  The  Moorish  war  did  much  to  bind  the 
people  of  Spain  together  as  one  nation.  All  parts  of  the 
country  were  interested  in  the  war  and  fought  against 
the  same  enemy.  When  a  victory  was  won,  the  Spaniards 
all  rejoiced  together.  In  this  way,  they  came  to  look  upon 
one  another  as  brothers,  no  matter  in  what  province  they 
dwelt  or  what  dialect  they  spoke ;  and  so  the  most  distant 


THE   RISE   OF   SPAIN  263 

provinces  were  knit  together  in  a  bond  of  union  that  has 
remained  to  this  day.  The  dialect  of  Castile  gradually 
took  the  place  of  all  others  and  became  the  language  of  the 
Spanish  nation. 

Spain  in  the  Lead.  —  These  wars  were  a  fine  training 
school  for  the  Spanish  soldiers.  They  learned  how  to  drill, 
how  to  obey  commands  promptly,  and  how  to  fight.  The 
wars  also  developed  some  great  generals  among  the  leaders. 
These  celebrated  captains  and  war-stained  veterans  won 
fame  and  respect  for  Spain,  all  over  Europe.  Having 
united  his  own  country,  Ferdinand  now  looked  for  new 
worlds  to  conquer.  While  other  countries  were  still  busy 
with  troubles  or  problems  at  home,  Spain  was  reaching  out 
to  other  lands. 

QUESTIONS 

1.   What  became  of  the  Goths  in  Spain  when  the  Moors  came? 

2.  Who  was  Pelayo  and  what  did  he  accomplish  for  his    people? 

3.  Describe  the  way  in  which  the  Spanish  Goths  pushed  back  the 
Moors.  4.  Tell  about  Isabella's  suitors.  5.  Was  it  well  for  Spain 
that  Isabella  and  Ferdinand  were  married ?  6.  Why?  7.  How  did 
Ferdinand  take  from  the  people  their  share  in  their  government  ? 
8.  What  was  Ferdinand's  purpose?  9.  What  was  Isabella's 
purpose?  10.  Tell  about  the  last  war  with  the  Moors,  n.  De- 
scribe the  early  cannon.  12.  What  made  Spain  the  strongest  nation 
of  all  in  those  days  ? 


CHAPTER  XXI 
MARCO  POLO  AND  THE  EAST 

Europe  Facing  Eastward.  —  For  many  centuries  the 
most  advanced  nations  of  the  world  had  formed  a  fringe 
about  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  To  them,  this  inland  ocean 
seemed  the  center  of  the  world.  The  people  of  Europe 
had  always  stood  with  their  faces  toward  the  east  and  their 
backs  to  the  stormy  Atlantic,  fearing  to  venture  far  in 
their  frail  ships  upon  this  "  Sea  of  Darkness  "  with  its 
unknown  terrors.  What  really  lay  to  the  westward  nobody 
knew.  To  the  south,  no  traveler  had  ever  gone  beyond 
the  burning  sands  of  the  Sahara,  while  the  frozen  plains 
of  the  far  north  were  occupied  by  fierce  and  barbarous 
peoples.  Thus  it  was  toward  the  east  only  that  Europeans 
turned  their  gaze. 

Dim  Knowledge  of  the  East.  —  Since  the  ancient  days 
they  had  heard  strange  stories  about  the  dim  and  distant 
East.  Long  before  the  Crusades,  Europe  had  fought  many 
wars  with  the  nations  of  Asia  ;  but  it  was  through  commerce, 
mainly,  that  the  West  gained  its  scanty  knowledge  of  China, 
Japan,  and  the  East  Indies.  The  luxuries  of  the  East 
were  carried  by  caravans  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  the  spices  and  rich  silks  passed  through  many  hands  — 
so  many  that  the  people  at  one  end  of  the  route  knew  almost 
nothing  of  those  at  the  other  end.  The  Romans,  to  whom 
silk  was  known,  supposed  that  the  threads  of  this  beautiful 
fabric  grew  upon  trees  or  plants,  so  dim  was  their  knowledge 

of  China. 

264 


MARCO  POLO  AND  THE  EAST 


265 


Wares  Exchanged.  —  During  the  Middle  Ages,  as  we 
have  read,  spices  came  to  be  in  great  demand  throughout 
western  Europe.  People  were  glad  to  buy,  at  high  prices, 
cloves,  cinnamon,  allspice,  ginger,  nutmeg,  and  other 
spices,  to  season  their  coarse  foods  and  to  heal  diseases. 
Certain  of  the  spices  were  worth  their  weight  in  gold.  In 
return  for  spice  and  silk,  Europeans  sent  back  to  Asia,  gold, 
silver,  copper,   iron,   and  tin.     They  also  gathered  wool, 


hemp,  and  dried  fish  for  the  slow-sailing  ships  and  caravans 
to  carry  back  to  the  East. 

Rise  of  Venice  and  Genoa.  —  The  Crusades  greatly 
quickened  this  profitable  trade,  as  we  have  seen,  and  many 
cities  of  western  Europe  were  eager  to  get  a  portion  of  the 
rich  commerce.  The  lion's  share  fell  into  the  hands  of 
two  thriving  Italian  cities,  Venice  and  Genoa;  and  the 
Mediterranean  was  filled  with  their  richly  laden  ships. 
Merchants  set  out  from  these  cities  upon  long  journeys 
among  strange  peoples,  where  white  men  had  never  been 
before. 

The  Polos.  —  Among  the  great  Venetian  merchants  were 
two  noblemen,  Nicolo  Polo  and  his  brother,  Maffio,  whose 


266    DAWN   OF    AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

business  often  carried  them  to  Constantinople.  They 
started  eastward  from  that  city  (1260)  on  a  trading 
journey  through  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  farther  they  went 
along  the  caravan  routes,  the  better  bargains  they  made, 
until  they  had  at  last  passed  nearly  across  the  great  continent 
of  Asia.  Finally  they  arrived  at  the  court  of  the  Great 
Khan  in  northwestern  China,  or  Cathay,  as  it  was  then 
called.     The   Polos   were   kindly   received   here,    and   the 

noble  ruler,  in  his  desire  to 
civilize  his  subjects,  sent 
them  back  with  rich  gifts 
and  a  message  to  the  pope, 
asking  for  missionaries  to 
be  sent  to  his  people.  The 
brothers  at  last  reached 
Venice,  only  to  learn  that 
the  pope  whom  they  remem- 
bered was  dead.  The  new 
pope  offered  only  two  friars, 
and  they,  in  dread  of  the 
fierce  Tartars  along  the 
way,  refused  to  go.     ■ 

Marco  Polo.  j  _ 

Marco  Polo  Becomes  a 

Traveler.  —  Again  the  Polo  brothers  set  out  for  China 
(1271),  taking  with  them  Nicolo's  son,  Marco,  now  a  lad  of 
seventeen.  After  four  years  of  toilsome  travel,  they 
reached  the  presence  of  the  Great  Khan  near  the  northern 
end  of  the  Great  Wall  of  China.  Young  Marco  quickly 
learned  to  speak  and  write  several  languages  of  Asia,  and 
was  soon  made  an  officer  of  the  Khan.  While  his  father 
and  uncle  were  busy  filling  their  pockets  with  gold,  Marco 
was  acting  as  a  trusted  servant  of  the  monarch,  making 
long  journeys  through  the  vast  regions    of    China.     The 


MARCO   POLO   AND,  THE   EAST  267 

Khan  held  the  Polos,  especially  the  young  Marco,  in  such 
high  esteem  that  when  they  wished  to  return  to  Venice 
with  their  riches,  he  was  unwilling  to  let  them  depart. 

A  Chance  to  Return. — At  last,  in  1292,  a  royal  bride 
was  to  be  sent  from  Peking  to  the  king  of  Persia  —  a  long, 
long  journey  to  the  West.  The  overland  route  was  unsafe 
because  of  a  war  among  the  interior  tribes.  So  the  bride 
was  to  be  sent  to  Tabriz  by  water.  It  was  a  long  and. 
dangerous  ocean  voyage,  which  called  for  trusted  seamen. 
All  Venetians  were  thought  to  be  seasoned  sea  dogs,  so  the 
royal  bride  was  piloted  to  her  western  bridegroom  by  the 
Polos,  who  were  delighted  at  the  thought  of  returning  home. 

The  Homeward  Journey.  —  They  set  out  from  a  port  of 
China,  sailing  southward  along  the  coast  of  Asia.  They 
passed  by  Sumatra  into  the  Indian  Ocean.  At  last,  after 
a  voyage  of  two  years,  they  reached  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Leaving  the  royal  bride  at  Tabriz,  they  pushed  on  by  way 
of  Constantinople,  arriving  at  Venice  after  an  absence  of 
four-and-twenty  years. 

Unknown  at  Home.  —  Their  kinsmen  had  long  since 
given  them  up  for  dead.  The  elder  Polos  had  grown  old  and 
gray,  while  Marco  was  much  changed.  When  they  came 
to  their  own  palace,  in  their  shabby  clothes  of  foreign  cut, 
they  were  turned  away.  A  few  days  afterward  they 
invited  a  party  of  old  friends  to  a  splendid  dinner  at  the 
best  hotel  in  Venice.  It  is  said  that  the  Polos,  clad  in 
velvet  and  lace,  and  still  unrecognized,  entertained  their 
guests  royally. 

Displaying  Diamonds.  —  Then  they  brought  forth  three 
shabby  coats,  ripped  open  the  seams,  and  began  pulling  out 
and  heaping  upon  the  table  great  treasures  of  diamonds 
and  emeralds,  rubies  and  sapphires,  to  the  astonishment 
of  the  guests,  who  cried  out  that  these  must  be  the  long-lost 


268    DAWN   OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

Polos.  When  the  news  became  known  about  Venice,  the 
whole  city,  rich  and  poor,  flocked  to  the  house  to  embrace 
them  and  to  show  them  respect. 

Marco  Polo  a  Prisoner  —  His  Book.  —  Three  years  later, 
Venice  and  Genoa  being  at  war,  Marco  Polo  took  command 
of  a  Venetian  warship,  and  in  the  sea  fight  that  followed  was 
captured  and  imprisoned  at  Genoa  for  a  year.  While 
here,  he  delighted  his  fellow-prisoners  with  wonderful 
stories  about  his  travels  in  China  and  the  East.  One  of 
the  prisoners,  who  knew  a  little  French,  wrote  down  these 
stories  as  Marco  told  them,  and  made  a  book,  which 
was  one  of  the  greatest  literary  works  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
It  told  more  new  facts  about  the  earth's  surface  than  any 
other  volume  of  those  days. 

His  Story  Told.  —  In  this  book  Marco  told  how  the  three 
Polos  had  traveled  on  and  on  toward  the  sunrise  "  for  a 
thousand  days,"  until  they  came  into  the  presence  of  the 
Great  Khan.  He  told  about  the  caravan  routes  in  many 
lands ;  about  Sumatra  and  Borneo  and  the  Spice  Islands ; 
about  Calicut,  where  a  fine  cotton  goods  called  calico 
was  made  and  where  Chinese  ships  came  to  unload  their 
cargoes  of  silks  and  spices.  Marco  told  of  Japan,  where 
the  emperor's  palace  was  roofed  with  gold.  In  this  book 
were  many  things  that  were  indeed  true,  but  there  was 
also  much  that  was  mere  fairy  tale  or  hearsay.  This  story 
was  copied  by  scribes,  printing  being  still  unknown,  and 
the  rich  merchants  and  learned  men  all  over  Europe  read  it 
and  talked  about  it. 

Not  All  Fairy  Tales.  —  The  ignorant  minds  of  those  days 
were  staggered  by  all  these  new  and  interesting  facts  of 
geography.  The  learned  people  thought  that  the  book 
was  full  of  fairy  tales.  But  one  point  brought  out  in  this 
tale  could  not  be  denied,  and  it  set  the  educated  people 


MARCO   POLO  AND   THE   EAST  269 

to  thinking.  An  early  geographer,  named  Ptolemy,  had 
said  that  Asia  extended  on  and  on,  and  that  no  one  might 
reach  the  edge  of  it  because  of  swamps.  But  Marco  Polo 
had  proved  this  to  be  untrue,  and  had  shown  that  there 
was  a  great  ocean  east  of  China  and  Japan,  upon  which  were 
many  ships  engaged  in  trade.  This  was  certain,  for  the 
Polos  had  actually  made  the  voyage  from  the  coast  of 
China  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  Some  learned  men  who  believed 
the  earth  to  be  round  like  a  ball  began  to  wonder  whether 
the  great  sea  east  of  China  might  not  be  the  same  as  the 
"  Sea  of  Darkness  "  to  the  west  of  Spain  and  France. 

The  Turk  in  Europe.  —  Something  now  happened  that 
made  the  people  of  Europe  not  only  think,  but  act.  The 
hateful  Turk,  whose  westward  march  had  been  checked  by 
the  Crusades  for  a  time,  was  again  on  the  warpath.  The 
Turks  had  actually  crossed  into  Europe,  secured  a  foothold 
there,  and  were  threatening  to  capture  Constantinople, 
the  center  of  most  of  the  eastern  trade. 

Cutting  off  Trade  Routes.  —  Every  step  gained  by  the 
Turks  meant  cutting  off  more  of  the  caravan  routes  to  the 
East.  At  last,  in  1453,  Constantinople  fell  into  their  hands, 
and  this  ended  the  eastern  trade  through  the  Black  Sea, 
which  was  the  route  then  followed  by  the  Genoese  mer- 
chants. At  the  same  time,  other  bands  of  Turks  were 
rapidly  overrunning  Syria  and  threatening  Egypt;  and  if 
Egypt  should  fall  to  them,  Venice's  route  to  India  and  the 
East  by  way  of  Egypt  and  the  Red  Sea  would  likewise  be 
cut  off.  Besides  these  evils,  the  Turkish  pirates  were 
swarming  about  the  eastern  end  of  the  Mediterranean 
itself,  and  driving  away  all  Christian  vessels. 

A  New  Route  Wanted.  —  What  was  to  be  done  ?  Should 
the  people  of  Europe  try  to  get  along  without  the  luxuries 
of  the  East  and  should  the  rich  merchants  and  traders  give 


270    DAWN  OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

up  all  their  profitable  business  because  the  eastern  routes 
were  cut  off  by  the  Turk?  At  any  cost,  some  new  route 
to  the  East  must  be  found.  How  much  safer  it  would  be  if 
an  all-water,  an  outside  route,  could  be  discovered!  Such 
a  water  route  would  not  only  be  safer  but  far  cheaper, 
since  transportation  by  caravan  was  very  costly  indeed. 

QUESTIONS 

i.  Was  Europe  interested  in  the  East  or  West  in  those  days? 
2.  Why?  3.  Why  was  so  little  known  of  the  East ?  4.  Why  were 
spices  wanted  in  Europe?  5.  What  made  Venice  and  Genoa  grow 
into  important  cities?  6.  Tell  about  the  Polos  and  their  journey. 
7.  Their  return.  8.  How  did  Marco  Polo  come  to  write  a  book, 
and  what  good  did  it  do?  9.  What  were  the  Turks  doing  at  this 
time?  10.  Trace  the  trade  routes  of  Venice  and  Genoa.  11. '  Why 
was  a  new  route  wanted  ? 


CHAPTER  XXII 
PRINCE  HENRY  AND   THE  PORTUGUESE 

Two  All- water  Routes.  —  The  all- water  route  to  China 
and  the  Spice  Islands  must  be  sought  for  upon  the  Atlantic, 
the  "Sea  of  Darkness."  Some  geographers  declared  that 
one  might  easily  sail  around  Africa  to  the  East,  while  others 
held  that  the  world  was  a  globe,  much  smaller  than  we 
have  since  found  it  to  be,  and  that  China  might  be  reached 
by  sailing  directly  westward  across  the  Atlantic.  But 
no  one  had  yet  been  bold  enough  to  defy  the  terrors  of 
either  route.  It  was  easier  to  believe  in  such  ideas  than 
to  act  upon  them,  because  such  a  voyage  called  for  great 
courage. 

One  Sea  Route  Frozen,  the  Other  Boiling.  —  Men  who 
had  sailed  to  the  far  north  beyond  England  and  Scotland, 
and  beyond  the  Shetland  Islands,  found  the  winter  nights 
there  very  long  and  cold.  The  lands  were  covered  with 
deep  snow,  and  the  ocean  was  rilled  with  mighty  icebergs. 
The  farther  north  they  went  the  colder  it  grew.  Other 
travelers,  who  had  gone  southward  along  the  coast  of 
Africa,  found  that  the  hot  climate  grew  hotter  as  they 
proceeded  toward  the  equator.  Thus  people  came  to  be- 
lieve that  in  the  extreme  northern  country  the  land  and 
even  the  sea  was  frozen  solid,  while  in  the  south  the  sea 
must  be  boiling  hot,  and  the  land  inhabited  only  by  goblins 
and  monstrous  reptiles.  Moreover,  they  said,  the  southern 
atmosphere  became  fiery,  and  if  a  ship  ventured  too  far, 
it  would  be  swallowed  up  in  a  steaming  whirlpool. 

271 


272     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

The  Down-hill  Voyage.  —  Sailors  were  discouraged,  too, 
by  other  stories.  People  had  noticed  that  when  a  ship 
disappeared  over  the  horizon,  it  seemed  to  go  down  hill, 
because  the  lower  parts  of  the  ship  dropped  below  the 
horizon  first,  then  the  other  parts  of  the  vessel,  and,  finally, 
the  topmost  sail.  The  fearsome  sailors  thought  that  if  they 
went  too  far  from  land  on  the  down-hill  voyage,  they  might 
never  get  back  up  again. 

Pulling  the  Nails  Out.  —  It  was  believed  by  some  people 
that  there  was  a  mountain  of  loadstone  in  the  bottom  of 
the  sea,  guarding  the  entrance  into  the  Indian  Ocean,  and 
that  it  drew  all  metal  to  it,  even  pulling  the  nails  from  the 
ships  that  tried  to  sail  over  it,  and  wrecking  them.  These 
difficulties  were  mere  fancies.  There  were,  however,  many 
real  difficulties  for  the  sailors  of  those  Dark  Ages. 

Some  Real  Difficulties.  —  The  ships  of  those  days  were 
crude  and  clumsy.  They  were  not  as  swift  as  those  that 
the  Northmen  had  sailed  hundreds  of  years  before.  In 
size  they  were  no  larger  than  our  yachts,  and  far  less  active. 
Against  head  winds  these  awkward  ships,  propelled  only 
by  sails,  made  very  slow  progress.  They  had  to  sail  zigzag 
against  the  wind  and  often  had  to  go  four  miles  in  this 
crooked  fashion  to  reach  a  point  only  one  mile  away.  With 
no  metal  below  the  ship's  water  line,  the  wooden  hull  was 
likely  to  be  pierced  by  worms  burrowing  into  the  wood. 
These  worms  were  more  to  be  feared  than  all  the  monsters 
of  the  deep,  for  they  sometimes  sent  ships  to  the  bottom 
of  the  ocean. 

The  Ship's  Provisions.  —  Another  difficulty  was  the 
question  of  supplying  the  sailors  in  these  tiny  ships  with 
food  enough  for  a  long  voyage.  People  lived  mainly  on 
a  meat  diet.  With  nothing  but  dry,  hard  bread  and  salt 
beef  or  pork  the  sailors  was  soon  attacked  by  that  dreaded 


PRINCE  HENRY  AND   THE   PORTUGUESE         273 


disease,  scurvy,  caused  by  lack  of  fresh  vegetable  food.  Fre- 
quently on  long  voyages  half  of  the  sailors  died  from  dis- 
ease, or,  if  they  went  too  far  from  land,  starvation  carried 
them  off. 

Fear  of  the  Compass.  —  The  compass  had  been  perfected, 
and  this  enabled  the  pilot  to  steer  his  ship  straight  when 
the  sky  was  hidden  by  clouds  or  fog.  But  so  ignorant 
and  superstitious  were  the  seamen,  that  for  a  long  time 
few  would  use  this  wonderful  instrument.  They  thought 
that  it  had  been  invented 
by  the  devil,  and  might  ^4 

lead    them    into    some 
awful  whirlpool. 

Direction  and  Dis- 
tance from  Port.  —  The 
compass  pointed  faith- 
fully to  the  north,  but 
there  are  other  things  a 
sailor  upon  the  trackless 
blue  ocean  wishes  to 
know  besides  the  direc- 
tion of  the  north  pole. 
He  wishes  to  know  how  far  he  is  from  home,  or  from 
his  port,  and  in  what  direction  he  must  sail  to  reach  it. 
If  he  knows  his  distance  from  the  equator,  which  we  call 
latitude,  and  his  distance  from  the  coast  of  Europe,  which 
we  call  longitude ;  then  he  knows  exactly  which  way  to  steer 
and  how  many  miles  he  must  go  to  reach  port. 

The  Jack  Staff.  —  Sailors  had  noticed  that  as  they  sailed 
north,  the  north  star  appeared  more  nearly  overhead,  while 
if  a  southerly  voyage  was  taken,  the  same  star  sank  gradu- 
ally toward  the  northern  horizon.  If  they  had  an  instru- 
ment that  could  measure  the  height  of  the  north  star,  they 


Finding  the  Latitude. 


274    DAWN   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

would  know  their  latitude.  A  rude  instrument  called  a 
jack  staff  was  invented.  It  was  an  absurd  instrument, 
but  it  showed  a  ship's  latitude  within  a  hundred  miles  or  so 
of  the  truth.  To-day  we  have  quadrants  that  tell  latitude 
exactly. 

Distances  East  and  West.  —  How  was  a  seaman  to  know 
his  longitude,  or  his  distance  from  the  coast  of  Europe? 
There  was  no  such  instrument  as  a  clock,  or  a  cyclometer, 
to  measure  the  distance  traveled.  Ships  usually  sailed  due 
north  or  due  south  to  the  parallel  of  the  place  they  were  aim- 
ing for,  then  turning  a  square  corner,  they  sailed  due  east 
or  due  west  to  it.  The  sailors  roughly  guessed  how  far 
they  had  gone  per  day  according  to  the  help  or  hindrance 
of  the  wind.  By  watching  bubbles  on  the  water,  as  the  ship 
crawled  along,  they  made  a  guess  of  the  speed  per  hour,  while 
the  sand  in  the  hourglass  kept  record  of  the  time.  Upon 
approaching  shore,  they  often  found  themselves  a  hundred 
miles  north  or  south  of  the  place  where  they  thought  they 
were,  and  five  hundred  miles  too  far  east  or  west  of  their 
port. 

Sailing  and  Learning.  —  But  in  spite  of  ignorance  and 
superstition,  in  spite  of  small  and  clumsy  ships,  hard  to 
guide,  there  were  bold  sailors  who  kept  pushing  a  little 
farther  on  each  voyage ;  and  an  ocean  route  from  Europe  to 
Asia  was  sure  to  be  discovered. 

Henry  the  Navigator.  —  There  was  born  in  Portugal 
(1394)  a  child  named  Prince  Henry,  whose  life  was  to  be 
spent  in  trying  to  sail  around  Africa  to  Asia.  Prince 
Henry  and  the  Portuguese  had  learned  to  sail  the  seas  in 
their  wars  with  the  Moors  in  Spain  and  Africa.  At  one 
time,  when  in  Africa,  Prince  Henry  heard  that  far  down 
the  west  coast  of  that  country  gold  was  found  and  carried  by 
caravans  to  the  Moors.     He  thought  that  the  Gold  Coast 


PRINCE  HENRY  AND   THE   PORTUGUESE 


275 


would  be  a  fine  place  to  reach  by  water,  then  the  yellow 
metal  might  be  carried  to  Portugal,  while,  at  the  same  time, 
the  wild  African  tribes  found  there  might  be  Christianized. 

Better  a  Scholar  Than  a  Warrior.  —  So  Prince  Henry 
came  home  from  Africa  to  devote  himself  to  the  study  of 
geography  and 
navigation.  He 
was  already  famous 
as  a  warrior,  and 
many  chances  came 
to  him  to  win 
further  glory  by 
leading  an  army 
for  the  pope  or  for 
King  Henry  V  of 
England  or  for  the 
king  of  Spain. 
Still  other  flatter- 
ing offers  came,  but 
Prince  Henry  re- 
fused them,  one 
and  all,  and  chose 
to  live  in  a  lonely 
secluded  spot 
where  he  might  study  without  interruption. 

Prince  Henry's  Observatory.  —  Upon  a  rocky  headland 
called  Point  St.  Vincent,  overlooking  the  sea,  Prince  Henry 
built  a  high  tower ;  and  to  this  tower  he  invited  teachers  of 
map  drawing,  shipbuilding,  and  seamanship  from  foreign 
countries.  One  day  his  brother  brought  him  a  copy  of 
Marco  Polo's  book;  and  as  he  read  of  the  wonders  of 
China,  Japan,  and  the  Spice  Islands,  he  was  more  deter- 
mined than  ever  to  find  an  ocean  route  to  the  East. 


Henry  the  Navigator. 


276    DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

Pushing  Southward.  —  So  he  sent  forth  his  captains  to 
plow  the  seas  far  south  along  the  coast  of  Africa,  while  he 
spent  his  hours  in  viewing  the  stars,  in  reading  books  of 
travel,  and  in  studying  geography.  The  returning  captains, 
at  first  sight  of  the  home  land,  beheld  the  high  tower  of  the 
prince,  and  in  reply  to  his  anxious  inquiries  as  to  how  far 
to  the  south  they  had  gone,  and  whether  they  had  found  the 
end  of  Africa,  they  always  returned  a  disappointing  answer. 
They  had,  they  said,  gone  farther  than  any  captain  before 
them;  but  their  sailors  had  refused  to  go  any  farther, 
because  they  feared  the  boiling  sea,  the  monsters  of  the  deep, 
or  the  down-hill  voyage.  They  had  discovered  islands,  the 
Madeiras,  the  Canaries,  the  Azores ;  but  Africa,  they  said, 
appeared  to  have  no  end. 

The  Gold  Coast  Reached.  —  Prince  Henry  laughed  at 
their  superstitious  fears,  and  sent  them  back  to  sail  around 
Africa.  The  prince  had  enemies  who  scoffed  at  his  plans 
and  objected  to  spending  so  much  money  on  these  worthless 
expeditions,  but  Henry  kept  on.  At  last  his  sailors  crept 
southward  as  far  as  Cape  Palmas,  where  the  coast  line 
turns  eastward  along  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  Now  they 
took  courage,  believing  that  at  last  the  end  of  the  continent 
had  been  reached.  Instead  they  came  upon  the  Gold  Coast 
and  loaded  their  ships  with  gold,  ivory,  and  slaves.  When 
they  returned  with  this  precious  cargo,  all  Portugal  was  wild 
with  excitement  and  joy.  The  people  now  took  a  greater 
interest  in  Prince  Henry's  work  and  ceased  to  criticize  him 
for  the  money  he  was  spending. 

Henry's  Death.  — ■  Prince  Henry  did  not  live  to  see  his 
ships  sail  around  Africa,  but  he  had  aroused  so  much 
interest  that,  after  his  death,  several  gallant  captains  con- 
tinued to  push  southward  on  long,  long  voyages  of  thousands 
of  miles.     Each  one  reached  a  more  distant  point  than 


PRINCE   HENRY   AND   THE   PORTUGUESE 


277 


his  predecessor  before  turning  back  to  the  Gold  Coast  for 
a  cargo  for  the  homeward  journey.  So  slowly  did  they 
proceed,  that  one  voyage  often  took  a  year  or  more. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope.  — At  last  in  1486,  Bartholomew  Diaz, 
while  carrying  the  Portuguese  flag  four  hundred  miles  south 
of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  was  caught  and  driven  southward 
before  a  heavy  wind  for  nearly  two  weeks  without  seeing 
land.  As  soon  as  pos- 
sible he  turned  his  ship 
eastward,  expecting  soon 
to  touch  the  coast.  But 
Diaz  was  then  beyond 
the  southernmost  point 
of  Africa,  and  after  sail- 
ing eastward  for  a  while 
and  seeing  no  land,  he 
turned  north  and 
touched  Africa  two  hun- 
dred miles  east  of  the 
end  of  the  continent. 
He  followed  the  coast 
northeastward  for  several  days  until  he  saw  it  turn  to  the 
north.  He  now  felt  sure  that  he  had  passed  the  end  of  Af- 
rica. His  worn-out  sailors  refused  to  go  farther,  however, 
and  Diaz  turned  back  reluctantly  from  the  Indian  Ocean 
toward  the  Atlantic.  On  his  homeward  way,  Diaz  passed 
in  full  sight  of  the  southernmost  cape  of  Africa;  and  he 
named  it  the  Stormy  Cape.  But  upon  his  arrival  at  Lisbon, 
King  John  said,  "  Let  it  rather  be  called  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  for  the  chances  of  reaching  the  East  by  this  route 
are  now  bright."  Diaz  had  really  discovered  the  end  of 
Africa;  but  it  was  ten  years  before  a  ship  sailed  around 
Africa  to  India.     On  this  voyage  with  Diaz  was  an  Italian 


278    DAWN   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

sailor  named  Bartholomew  Columbus,  a  younger  brother 
of  Christopher  Columbus,  of  whose  courage  and  daring  we 
shall  read  in  the  next  chapter. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  two  water  routes  were  suggested?  2.  What  objections 
did  the  people  have  to  each?  3.  What  did  the  people  mean  by  a 
down-hill  voyage?     4.    Explain  the  belief  about  the  Indian  Ocean. 

5.  What  were  some  of  the  real  difficulties  in  sea  travel  in  those  days  ? 

6.  What  was  the  jack  staff?  7.  Do  you  admire  Henry  the  Navi- 
gator ?  8.  For  what  ?  o.  Why  was  it  easier  to  make  progress  down 
the  coast  of  Africa  after  the  Gold  Coast  was  reached  ?  10.  Tell  about 
Diaz's  voyage  to  Good  Hope. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
COLUMBUS  AND  THE  NEW  WORLD 

Genoa  and  the  All- water  Route.  —  When  Constantinople 
fell  to  the  Turks  in  1453,  the  merchants  and  sailors  of 
Genoa  began  to  take  great  interest  in  finding  an  all-water 
route  to  the  Spice  Islands.  Hearing  stories  of  Prince 
Henry's  voyages  down  the  coast  of  Africa,  many  Genoese 
sailors  were  drawn  to  Portugal  to  take  part  in  them,  for 

they  believed  that  it  was 
possible  to  sail  around 
Africa  to  India  and  the 
East.  Among  these  Gen- 
oese sailors  at  Lisbon  was 
one  named  Christopher 
Colombo,  or  Columbus. 

Early  Life  of  Columbus. 
—  Of  his  boyhood  and  his 
early  life,  we  know  very 
little.  His  father  was  a 
wool  comber  —  one  who 
combs  the  fibers  of  wool 
straight  so  that  it  may  be 
spun  into  yarn.  Christo- 
pher spent  his  youth  partly  in  going  to  school  and  partly 
in  trips  upon  the  blue  Mediterranean.  He  learned  Latin, 
a  little  geography,  and  something  of  the  stars,  as  such 
knowledge  was  needed  for  the  sailor  life  to  which  he  was 
looking  forward.     He  must  have  taken  part,  now  and  then, 

279 


Christopher  Columbus. 


280     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

in  sea  battles  with  Turkish  corsairs  and  in  pirate  expedi- 
tions. He  became  a  skillful  sailor,  and,  between  trips  at 
sea,  he  earned  his  living  in  Genoa  by  making  maps  and 
charts,  which  were  in  much  demand  in  the  growing  sea 
trade. 

Was  Columbus  a  Teuton  ?  —  Columbus  was  tall  and 
powerfully  built.  He  had  a  ruddy  face,  red  hair,  and  blue 
eyes.  We  know  that  most  Italians  are  dark ;  so  it  is  likely 
that  Columbus  descended  from  some  barbarian  tribe  that 
settled  in  Italy,  and  that  he  was,  after  all,  a  Teuton  and  a 
distant  kinsman  of  ours. 

Columbus  at  Lisbon.  —  Christopher  was  later  attracted 
to  Lisbon,  whither  his  young  brother,  Bartholomew,  had 
gone  some  years  before.  Lisbon  was  then  the  center  of 
interest  in  geography,  in  travel,  and  discovery.  Here 
Columbus  spent  his  time  making  maps,  and  now  and 
then  taking  a  voyage  down  the  coast  of  Africa  upon  the 
stormy  Atlantic. 

His  Island  Life.  —  While  at  Lisbon  Columbus  was 
married  and  went  to  live  in  quiet  at  Porto  Santo,  a  little 
island  three  hundred  miles  out  upon  the  blue  Atlantic. 
It  was  here  that  he  began  to  think  of  the  best  way  to  reach 
the  Indies.  He  received  from  his  father-in-law  many 
valuable  sailing  charts,  and  studied  these  diligently.  Now 
and  then  some  ship  bound  for  the  Gold  Coast  touched  at 
the  island,  and  probably  Columbus  talked  with  the  sailors 
about  the  great  problem  of  how  to  reach  China  by  water. 

Planning  a  Western  Voyage.  —  After  a  time  Columbus 
went  back  to  Lisbon  to  live.  He  began  to  talk  of  a  west- 
ward voyage  to  the  East.  The  Portuguese  had  found,  to 
their  disappointment,  that  beyond  the  Gulf  of  Guinea 
the  coast  of  Africa  turned  southward  again,  and  long,  long 
voyages  had  failed  to  find  the  end  of  the  continent.     This 


COLUMBUS   AND   THE   NEW   WORLD 


281 


was  before  the  discovery  of  the  cape  by  Diaz.  The  dis- 
tance already  traveled  was  so  great  that  people  began  to 
wonder  whether  there  might  not  be  a  shorter  route  to  Asia. 

Toscanelli.  —  The  most  famous  geographer  of  those  days 
was  Toscanelli,  who  lived  at  Florence,  Italy.  To  him 
Columbus  wrote  a  letter, 
asking  what  he  thought 
about  sailing  westward 
across  the  Atlantic.  Co- 
lumbus also  sent  him  a 
chart  that  he  had  made 
of  the  Atlantic  as  he  be- 
lieved it  might  be,  show- 
ing Europe  on  the  east  of 
it  and  Cathay  on  the 
west.  Toscanelli  wrote 
back,  saying  that  it  was 
certainly  a  shorter  jour- 
ney straight  westward  to 

China  than  it  was  by  way  of  Guinea  and  Africa.  He  sent 
Columbus  a  map  upon  which  he  showed  Asia  extending  so  far 
east  that  it  reached  California.  East  of  this  he  had  placed 
Japan,  about  where  the  West  Indies  are.  He  told  Colum- 
bus that  a  voyage  across  the  Atlantic  was  a  grand  and 
a  noble  project  and  that  its  achievement  would  bring  him, 
not  only  great  riches,  but  great  honor. 

Believing  the  Earth  a  Round  Ball.  —  From  the  days 
of  ancient  Greece  wise  men  had  believed  the  world  to  be 
round,  and  at  the  time  when  Columbus  lived  people  of 
education  had  come  to  accept  this  belief.  It  was  for 
Columbus  to  show  the  sublime  courage  of  proving  his 
conviction  in  the  face  of  all  the  mysterious  terrors  of  the 
"  Sea  of  Darkness." 


Toscanelli. 


282     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

Two  Fortunate  Mistakes.  —  In  estimating  the  distance 
straight  to  China,  Columbus  relied  upon  Toscanelli's  map ; 
and  thus  he  made  two  fortunate  mistakes.  He  calculated 
that  the  earth  was  somewhat  smaller  than  it  is,  and  he 
thought  that  Asia  extended  as  far  to  the  east  as  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  On  account  of  these  two  beliefs,  Columbus  was 
confident  that  a  voyage  of  twenty-five  hundred  miles  west 
from  the  Canaries  would  land  him  on  the  wonderful  island 
of  Japan.  This  was  less  than  the  distance  from  Lisbon 
to  Guinea.  If  he  had  known  that  the  distance  westward 
to  China  was'  twelve  thousand  miles,  how  poor  his  chances 
of  obtaining  men  and  money  would  have  been!  His 
twenty-five  hundred  miles  scarcely  carried  him  to  the  un- 
known West  Indies;  and,  of  course,  he  never  dreamed 
that  the  great  continent  of  America  lay  across  his  path. 

Making  Up  His  Mind.  — About  1482  Columbus  returned 
to  Lisbon  from  a  voyage  to  Guinea.  He  had  found  this 
country  far  away,  and  Africa  seemed  to  extend  on  and  on, 
no  one  knew  how  many  miles.  It  was  then  that  he  made 
up  his  mind  to  try  the  straight  westward  route,  if  he  could 
get  the  ships  and  sailors.  A  fine  new  astrolabe  had  just 
been  invented,  which  enabled  sailors  to  keep  their  latitude 
at  sea.  With  this  new  instrument  they  felt  a  little  safer 
upon  the  ocean.  The  Portuguese  were  now  pushing  south- 
ward in  earnest. 

Columbus  and  King  John.  —  Columbus  applied  to 
King  John  of  Portugal  for  men  and  ships  for  his  daring 
westward  voyage.  King  John  called  his  learned  men  to- 
gether and  asked  them  what  they  thought  of  Columbus's 
idea.  Some  said  that  it  was  nothing  but  a  dream ;  others, 
that  Asia  did  not  extend  as  far  to  the  east  as  Columbus 
maintained ;  and  still  others  told  the  king  that  the  voyage 
would  cost  too  much,     Moreover,  they  thought  Columbus, 


COLUMBUS   AND   THE   NEW  WORLD  283 

who  was  a  foreigner,  wanted  too  many  rewards  and  too 
much  honor  for  his  share,  if  the  voyage  were  a  success. 

Playing  Unfair.  —  King  John,  who  had  some  of  Prince 
Henry's  love  of  bold  deeds,  wanted  to  try  the  venture; 
but  he  feared  that  if  he  spent  a  large  sum  of  money  and  the 
enterprise  failed,  the  whole  kingdom  would  laugh  at  his 
folly.  He  did  not  mean  to  be  unfair  to  Columbus,  but  he 
planned  to  try  the  experiment  quietly,  so  that  if  he  failed, 
no  one  would  be  the  wiser.  He  secretly  sent  out  a  ship  with 
the  charts  of  Columbus,  to  sail  westward  from  the  Cape 
Verde  Islands.  But  the  sailors  and  the  pilot  soon  lost 
heart  at  the  great  stormy  sea  before  them,  and  returned  to 
Lisbon.  Columbus  heard  of  the  trick  and  left  Portugal 
in  anger. 

At  the  Court  of  Spain.  —  We  next  find  him  in  Spain  at 
the  court  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  at  Cordova.  The 
Spanish  sovereigns  were  at  war  trying  to  drive  out  the 
Moors.  So  they  had  little  time  to  consider  the  plans  of 
Columbus,  but  they  were  sufficiently  interested  to  call  a 
council  of  learned  men,  including  the  professors  from  the 
famous  university  of  Cordova.  Some  thought  that  his 
scheme  was  worth  trying,  but  others  ridiculed  him. 

The  Earth  Round?  Folly.  —  One  churchman  declared 
that  Columbus  was  a  madman.  "  Is  there  any  one  so 
foolish,"  said  he,  "as  to  believe  that  the  world  is  round,  and 
that  people  live  on  the  other  side  with  their  feet  toward 
ours :  people  who  walk  with  their  heels  upward  and  their 
heads  hanging  down :  where  trees  grow  with  their  branches 
downward  and  where  it  rains,  hails,  and  snows  upward?  " 
And  he  laughed  Columbus  to  scorn.  So  at  this  time  nothing 
was  done  by  the  Spanish  rulers  to  aid  our  hero. 

Asking  England  and  France.  —  Columbus's  brother, 
Bartholomew,  had  just  now  returned  to  Lisbon  from  his 


284     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

voyage  with  Diaz  in  which  they  had  discovered  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  Columbus  hastened  to  Lisbon  to  see  him. 
After  talking  it  over  and  thinking  of  the  long,  long  distance 
to  Good  Hope,  Columbus  was  more  anxious  than  ever  to 
attempt  the  westward  route.  So  he  sent  Bartholomew  to 
England  and  to  France  to  seek  aid  for  him. 

Reception  in  England  and  France. — We  hear  of  Barthol- 
omew first  in  England  at  the  court  of  Henry  VII.  What  he 
said  to  the  English  ruler  we  do  not  know,  but  Henry  loved 
his  money  too  much  to  risk  it  upon  such  an  undertaking. 
From  England  Bartholomew  went  to  the  court  of  France. 
Several  years  passed,  and  Columbus  heard  nothing  from  his 
brother. 

Patiently  Waiting.  —  All  this  while  Columbus  seems  to 
have  been  waiting  for  an  answer  from  Spain.  But  the 
Spanish  were  still  fighting  the  Moors  and  too  busy  to  give 
ear  to  him.  After  years  of  vain  effort  in  Spain,  Columbus 
was  thoroughly  disappointed.  He  determined  to  go  to 
France.  It  is  said  that  the  children  of  Seville  and  Cordova 
looked  upon  him  as  insane,  and  when  they  saw  him  pass, 
they  tapped  their  foreheads  and  smiled. 

Growing  Old,  but  Resolute  Still.  —  Columbus  had  now 
been  trying  for  nearly  twenty  years  to  interest  some  ruler 
in  taking  up  his  plans,  and  old  age  was  coming  on.  So  with 
his  little  son,  Diego,  he  set  out  to  leave  Spain  forever.  He 
stopped  at  a  monastery  near  Palos  for  bread  for  his  boy. 
The  prior,  named  Perez,  a  worthy  monk,  listened  to  his 
story  and  took  a  deep  interest  in  it.  He  had  formerly 
been  the  father  confessor  to  the  Spanish  queen,  and  he  now 
sent  her  a  letter  pleading  for  Columbus. 

Come  Back.  —  Queen  Isabella  summoned  the  monk  to 
her,  and  by  him  sent  some  money  to  Columbus,  inviting 
him  to  return  to  her  court.     With  this  money  Columbus 


COLUMBUS   AND   THE   NEW   WORLD 


285 


286     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

bought  a  mule  and  a  new  suit  of  clothes,  and  set  out  for 
the  Spanish  court  to  lay  his  case  before  the  queen. 

Again  Before  Learned  Men.  —  Upon  his  arrival,  his  plan 
was  argued  before  a  body  of  learned  men.  Several  church- 
men were  now  in  favor  of  aiding  Columbus,  but  others 
continued  to  ridicule  the  undertaking.  Then  Isabella  prom- 
ised to  take  up  the  scheme  as  soon  as  they  could  capture 
Granada,  the  last  of  the  Moorish  towns.  Columbus  waited 
again,  but  not  long,  for  the  Moorish  capital  soon  fell  to  the 
Christians ;  and  nobody  rejoiced  more  than  did  our  hero  to 
see  the  cross  take  the  place  of  the  crescent  in  Granada. 

Help  Again  Refused. — But  instead  of  the  help  that  he 
was  expecting  to  receive,  he  was  again  accused  of  demand- 
ing too  much  power  over  any  heathen  lands  that  he  might 
discover;  and  he  was  finally  denied  aid.  With  his  last 
hope  crushed  Columbus  set  out  upon  his  mule  for  France ; 
but  some  one  who  favored  him  ran  to  the  queen  and  begged 
her  not  to  let  this  splendid  offer  pass  on  to  France  or  Eng- 
land. He  told  her  how  her  enemies  would  laugh  and  her 
friends  sorrow,  if  France  should  get  the  honor  and  riches 
from  this  westward  voyage. 

Changing  Her  Mind.  —  Suddenly  the  queen  changed  her 
mind,  and  a  fleet  messenger  was  sent  to  stop  Columbus. 
Spurring  with  all  speed,  he  overtook  him  at  a  lonely  bridge 
about  six  miles  from  Granada.  Columbus,  with  many 
doubts,  turned  back  his  mule  a  second  time  toward  the 
Spanish  court.  This  time  his  plans  were  accepted  by  Queen 
Isabella,  who  promised  to  provide  the  money.  King  Ferdi- 
nand had  no  share  in  the  undertaking. 

His  Hard  Terms.  —  Columbus  was  to  be  admiral  for 
life  of  all  the  islands  and  continents  that  he  might  discover. 
He  was  to  have  for  himself  one  tenth  of  all  pearls,  diamonds, 
gold,  silver,  and  a  share  in  the  profits  on  spices  and  other 


COLUMBUS   AND   THE   NEW  WORLD  287 

articles  of  trade.  These  were  the  hard  terms  that  Columbus 
insisted  on  so  stubbornly.  He  did  not  seek  wealth  merely 
for  himself,  but  he  had  longed  for  many  years  to  deliver 
Jerusalem  from  the  Turks,  and  he  meant  to  use  every 
penny  of  his  money  in  this  cause. 

Difficulties  Begin.  —  Columbus  was  deeply  moved,  and 
tears  of  joy  came  to  his  eyes,  when  he  knew  that  after  so 
many  years  of  trial  and  disappointment  he  was  to  be  per- 
mitted to  risk  his  life  in  the  greatest  voyage  ever  attempted. 
When  he  reached  the  town  of  Palos,  with  orders  from  the 
queen  for  ships  and  men,  there  was  almost  a  riot.  No  ship- 
owners were  willing  to  furnish  vessels  for  such  a  voyage  on 
the  "  Sea  of  Darkness,"  nor  had  the  sailors  any  desire  to 
steer  straight  into  the  jaws  of  death.  But  the  royal  orders 
for  ships  and  provisions  must  be  obeyed,  no  matter  what  the 
groans  and  curses. 

Enlisting  Sailors.  —  To  get  sailors  was  the  hardest  task. 
Criminals  were  released  from  jail  on  condition  that  they 
would  promise  to  enlist  with  Columbus.  At  last  seamen 
were  simply  forced  to  go,  whether  they  wished  to  or  not. 
They  put  every  hindrance  in  the  way  of  getting  started. 
Those  who  were  calking  up  the  seams  of  the  vessels  to  pre- 
vent leaks,  did  a  careless  job,  so  that  it  had  to  be  done  over 
again  ;  others  deserted  and  hid  themselves. 

Off  to  the  West.  —  At  last,  after  many  troubles  and  diffi- 
culties, Columbus  set  sail  from  Palos  on  Friday,  August  3, 
1492.  How  his  heart  must  have  leaped  with  joy,  now  that 
he  was  fairly  started!  He  had  under  his  command  three 
small  vessels  with  ninety  sailors  aboard.  These  hardy 
seamen  bade  their  friends  a  last  farewell  in  tears,  as  though 
they  never  expected  to  behold  one  another  again. 

Headed  for  the  Canaries.  —  The  tiny  fleet  steered  first 
for  the  Canary  Islands.     From  there  the  course  was  to  be 


288     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

due  west  to  Japan.  For  his  guide  Columbus  had  the  map, 
or  chart,  sent  him  years  before  by  Toscanelli,  upon  which 
he  had  made  some  improvements.  Hardly  had  Columbus 
left  port,  than  he  began  to  see  signs  of  mischief  among  his 
dissatisfied  crews.  The  rudder  of  one  ship  was  soon  broken, 
purposely  he  thought,  so  that  the  ship  could  not  go  on  ;  but 
a  steering  gear  was  made  that  would  do  until  the  Canaries 


Columbus's  Fleet  —  Pinta,  Nina,  Santa  Maria. 

were  reached.  While  making  repairs  here,  the  sailors  were 
frightened  out  of  their  wits  by  seeing  a  lofty  mountain 
belching  out  flames  and  smoke.  Columbus  explained  that 
it  was  merely  a  volcano,  saying  he  had  often  seen  such  sights 
in  Italy. 

Straight  into  the  "  Sea  of  Darkness."  — After  making  a 
new  rudder  for  the  disabled  ship  and  taking  on  wood  and 
water,  the  prows  were  turned  westward  into  the  unknown 
ocean.     Other  great  sea  captains  had  sailed  hundreds  of 


COLUMBUS   AND   THE   NEW  WORLD  289 

miles  along  strange  coasts ;  but  Columbus  was  steering 
straight  into  the  trackless  ocean,  with  no  support  but  his 
own  bold  idea. 

Keeping  Two  Records.— As  the  Canaries  sank  from  sight 
on  the  east,  and  only  the  vast  stretch  of  ocean  lay  before,  the 
sailors  cried  and  sobbed  like  children.  Columbus  knew 
that  he  would  have  trouble  with  them  on  his  long  voyage, 
so  he  kept  two  records  of  the  distance  traveled.  One  record 
was  as  nearly  correct  as  he  could  judge  from  the  bubbles 
and  foam  through  which  the  vessel  plowed.  This  record 
was  for  his  own  eye.  Another  record,  a  false  one,  was  for 
his  officers  and  crews.  If  he  had  sailed  120  miles  in  a  day 
and  night,  he  put  down,  perhaps,  108  miles.  The  weather 
was  fine  and  the  voyage  might  have  been  a  pleasant  one, 
had  not  the  sailors  been  looking  all  the  time  for  monsters 
or  for  a  boiling  sea. 

The  Compass  Bewitched.  —  After  many  days  Columbus 
noticed  that  the  compass  no  longer  pointed  directly  to  the 
north  star  but  bent  to  the  left,  and,  with  each  day,  it  pointed 
a  little  farther  from  the  pole  star.  Columbus  was  troubled 
about  it,  but  said  nothing.  For  a  time  he  hid  this  truth 
from  the  eyes  of  his  pilots.  It  finally  became  known,  how- 
ever, and  all  were  in  deep  alarm.  Must  they  cease  to  trust 
the  compass  ?  Was  it  a  witch  trying  to  lead  them  into  some 
awful  whirlpool  ?  What  was  there  left  now  to  guide  them  in 
this  trackless  ocean  ? 

Faith  in  Columbus.  —  But  they  believed  in  the  profound 
knowledge  of  Columbus,  and  he  quieted  their  fears  by  telling 
them  that  the  compass  was  correct,  but  that  the  pole  star 
had  moved  just  as  other  stars  do.  This  was  not  true,  for  the 
pole  star  is  always  over  the  north  pole  ;  but  it  was  the  only 
explanation  that  Columbus  could  give.  We  now  know  that 
the  compass  points,  not  to  the  north  pole,  but  to  the  mag- 


2QO     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

netic  pole,  which  is  a  little  south  of  it  on  a  peninsula  of 
Canada.     You  will  find  it  on  the  map. 

Another  Scare.  —  Some  days  later  the  boats  came  upon 
a  great  sea  of  growing  seaweeds  and  grasses.  It  was  the 
Sargasso  Sea,  three  times  as  large  as  France,  where  tangled 
seaweeds  grow  upon  the  surface  of  the  water  that  is  two 
miles  deep.  To  the  sailors,  this  looked  like  an  endless  green 
prairie.  So  long  as  there  was  a  good  breeze,  Columbus's 
fleet  plowed  easily  through  it ;  but  when  the  winds  calmed, 
they  could  make  little  headway,  and  the  crews  were  afraid 
of  running  aground.  When  their  longest  plummet  line 
failed  to  touch  bottom  they  took  heart,  and  after  some  days 
they  passed  again  into  a  clear  sea. 

Doubting  a  Friend.  —  Sailors  always  take  delight  in  a 
favorable  breeze,  but  our  heroes  now  found  themselves 
hurried  westward  by  a  strong  and  steady  wind  which  kept 
up  for  weeks.  They  began  to  wonder  whether  they  could 
ever  return  against  such  winds.  They  had  simply  entered 
the  belt  of  constant  trade  winds,  but,  for  all  they  knew, 
they  were  being  hurried  along  to  some  awful  fate.  The  wind 
changed  after  a  while,  however,  and  they  began  to  look  for 
some  other  bugaboo. 

Plotting  to  Throw  Columbus  Overboard.  —  Now  after 
many  days  and  weeks  of  steady  sailing,  the  crews  began  to 
be  impatient  at  finding  no  land.  So  they  gathered  in  groups 
to  plot  against  Columbus.  Should  they  throw  him  over- 
board some  dark  night  and  turn  back,  or  should  they  put 
him  in  chains,  and  steer  for  home?  Had  it  not  been  for 
some  signs  of  land,  Columbus  would  have  failed  through 
some  of  these  dark  plots. 

Signs  of  Land.  — -  Every  day  now  they  saw  something 
that  might  point  to  land  near  by.  Often  they  saw  birds, 
which  they  thought  always  roosted  on  land ;    or  perhaps  it 


COLUMBUS   AND   THE  NEW  WORLD  291 

was  a  weed,  believed  to  grow  only  in  fresh  water;  or  a 
branch  ;  or  the  appearance  of  clouds  hovering  upon  the  hori- 
zon, which  the  sailors  said  was  a  sign  of  land.  Once  they 
saw  a  whale,  and  Columbus  assured  them  that  it  was  an 
indication  that  they  were  near  shore.  But  always  their 
hopes  were  dashed,  for  the  following  day  brought  only  a  vast 
expanse  of  the  blue  ocean.  The  men  then  became  discour- 
aged and  more  than  ever  angry  with  Columbus,  who,  they 
said,  was  only  a  foreigner  and  a  madman. 

"Land!  Land!"  —  But  soon  more  favorable  signs 
appeared.  Columbus  promised  a  reward  to  the  good  pair 
of  eyes  that  first  saw  land.  Seamen  often  climbed  into  the 
rigging,  straining  their  eyes  to  the  west;  and  frequently 
the  cry  of  "  Land!  Land!  "  was  heard,  but  the  next  morn- 
ing proved  it  all  a  dream.  Again  the  crews  clamored  to  go 
home.  But  Columbus  could  not  be  moved  from  his  purpose 
by  either  prayers  or  threats. 

Other  Signs.  —  One  morning,  at  sunrise,  a  cannon  was 
fired  as  a  signal  of  discovery ;  but  the  supposed  land  proved 
to  be  only  a  cloud  on  the  horizon.  Flocks  of  small  field 
birds  were  now  seen,  also  a  heron,  a  pelican,  and  a  duck ; 
but  again  the  next  day  brought  only  a  boundless  sea.  The 
angry  crews  became  threatening  and  dangerous.  At  last 
the  signs  were  unmistakable.  A  thorn  bush  with  berries 
on  it  floated  by,  and  the  men  picked  up  a  small  board  and  a 
cane  carved  by  a  man's  hand.  Nobody  could  doubt  these 
indications,  and  the  spirits  of  the  men  rose  high. 

All  Eyes  on  the  Horizon.  —  All  day,  ninety  sailors  were 
eagerly  on  the  watch,  and  when  nightfall  came,  Columbus 
took  his  station  upon  the  cabin  or  high  point  of  the  vessel, 
keeping  his  eyes  on  the  horizon.  Not  a  seaman  slept. 
About  ten  o'clock  at  night,  Columbus  saw  a  moving  light. 
On  they  sailed.     At  two  o'clock  in  the  morning  a  gun  an- 


292     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

nounced  the  discovery  of  land,  and  everybody  could  see  the 
shore  distinctly  about  five  miles  away.  There  was  great 
joy  and  excitement  on  board  the  ships.  The  little  fleet  took 
in  sail,  and  the  crew  impatiently  waited  for  daybreak. 

Landing  Upon  the  New  World. —When  morning  came, 
almost  all  the  crew,  with  Columbus  at  the  head,  rowed  to 


The  Landing  of  Columbus. 

land.  It  was  the  12th  of  October,  1492,  when  they  stepped 
upon  the  shores  of  the  new  world.  "  They  threw  themselves 
upon  their  knees,  kissed  the  earth,  and  returned  thanks  to 
God  with  tears  of  joy."  Then  Columbus  arose.  He  drew 
his  sword,  unfurled  the  flag  of  Spain,  and  declared  the  island 
to  belong  to  the  queen  of  Spain.  So  great  was  the  rejoicing, 
that  the  officers  embraced  Columbus  or  kissed  his  hands, 
while  the  sailors  threw  themselves  at  his  feet  begging  his 
forgiveness. 

Strange  Inhabitants.  —  While  this  was  going  on,  a  multi- 
tude of  savages  appeared  near  by.  The  men,  women,  and 
children  had  copper-colored  skin,  and  their  naked  bodies 


COLUMBUS   AND   THE   NEW   WORLD  293 

were  greased  and  painted.  They  looked  with  awe  and 
astonishment  upon  the  strange  visitors  who  they  believed 
came  down  from  the  sky.  They  thought  that  the  ships  were 
monsters  of  the  sea.  Columbus  believed  that  he  had  dis- 
covered an  island  of  the  East  Indies.  So  he  called  the 
savages  he  saw  here  Indians.  He  was  really  upon  one  of 
the  Bahama  Islands  in  what  was  later  called  the  West 
Indies. 

Making  Friends.  —  At  the  first  sight  of  the  white-winged 
monsters  the  natives  had  fled  in  terror  to  the  woods ;  but 
they  now  cautiously  returned,  keeping  for  a  while  at  a  dis- 
tance. The  Spaniards  encouraged  them  with  nods  and 
smiles,  as  they  came  slowly  up  to  the  "  white  visitors  from 
heaven  "  and  touched  them  with  their  hands  to  make  sure 
that  they  were  real  men  and  not  ghosts.  The  Indians  gladly 
gave  up  their  gold  ornaments  and  whatever  else  they  had, 
for  beads  and  other  trinkets  brought  by  the  Spaniards. 

Where  were  the  Spices  and  Gold?  — The  Spaniards 
talked  to  the  Indians  by  signs  and  asked  for  the  golden  cities 
of  China  and  Japan,  but  the  Indians  merely  pointed  off  in 
one  direction  or  another.  Columbus  cruised  about  for  ten 
days  among  the  Bahamas,  puzzled  at  not  finding  spices  and 
drugs  and  great  cities.  But  he  felt  sure  that  he  was  near 
Japan  and  China.  He  discovered  Cuba  and  other  large 
islands,  always  hoping  that  he  had  at  last  found  Asia,  but 
always  disappointed. 

Left  with  One  Ship.  —  One  vessel,  which  was  speedier 
than  the  others,  now  deserted  Columbus.  Pinzon,  the 
commander,  meant  to  return  with  it  to  Spain,  and  claim 
credit  that  was  not  his.  On  Christmas  morning,  Columbus's 
flagship  struck  a  sandbank  and  was  beaten  to  pieces  by  the 
waves,  but  not  until  the  men  and  valuables  on  it  had  been 
saved.     This  left  Columbus  with  only  one  ship.     "  What  if 


294     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

something  should  happen  to  it!  "  thought  he.    Then  Europe 
might  never  know  of  his  discoveries. 

Planning  to  Return.  —  He  decided  to  return  at  once  to 
Spain  and  to  plan  a  second  voyage  with  a  larger  fleet.  He 
could  not  carry  back  all  the  men  upon  his  lone  ship,  so  he 
built  a  blockhouse  of  parts  of  the  wrecked  vessel  and  placed 
the  ship's  cannon  in  it.  Here  he  left  forty  of  his  men  with  a 
promise  to  return,  and  speedily  set  sail  for  Spain.  A  few 
days  later  they  caught  up  with  the  deserting  ship,  whose 
commander  made  many  lame  excuses  for  desertion  of 
Columbus.  Together  they  now  turned  their  prows  straight 
toward  Spain. 

Preparing  for  the  Worst.  —  In  mid  ocean  they  met  with  a 
terrible  storm.  It  seemed  probable  that  both  ships  would 
be  lost.  They  again  became  parted  to  take  different  courses. 
Fearing  a  watery  grave,  Columbus  wrote  two  reports  of 
his  discoveries.  These  he  covered  with  wax  and  wrapped  in 
cloth.  He  then  sealed  each  in  a  barrel,  one  of  which  he  flung 
into  the  sea,  while  the  other  was  left  upon  the  deck  to  float 
away  in  case  the  ship  went  to  the  bottom.  Columbus  hoped 
that  one  of  these  barrels  might  one  day  be  washed  ashore,  or 
be  picked  up  by  some  ship ;  and  thus  his  discoveries  might 
be  made  known. 

Driven  Upon  the  Coast  of  Portugal.— Both  ships,  however, 
weathered  this  storm  and  made  sail  for  Spain.  But  Colum- 
bus's ship,  when  nearing  home,  was  caught  in  another  storm 
and  driven  upon  the  coast  of  Portugal,  where  it  was  guided 
safely  into  the  mouth  of  a  river.  Lisbon  was  wild  with 
excitement  at  the  news  of  Columbus's  discovery.  He  set 
sail  shortly  after,  and  at  noon  on  March  15,  1493,  entered 
the  harbor  of  Palos,  having  been  gone  more  than  seven 
months. 

Home  Again.  —  As  the  news  spread  about,  the  whole 


COLUMBUS   AND   THE   NEW   WORLD  295 

town  gave  itself  up  to  rejoicing.  There  was  scarcely  a 
citizen  who  had  not  some  relative  with  Columbus,  and 
behold,  they  were  not  dead!  Bells  were  rung,  shops  were 
closed,  and  people  took  a  holiday.  Towards  evening  the 
other  vessel,  which  was  parted  from  Columbus  in  the  storm 
in  mid-ocean,  sailed  safely  into  the  same  harbor  and  the 
sailors  joined  in  the  general  rejoicing  with  friends  and 
relatives. 

Europe  Aroused.  —  The  great  navigator  was  soon  sum- 
moned to  the  court  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  where  he  was 
received  with  great  honor.  As  he  rode  through  the  cities 
of  Spain,  he  was  greeted  like  a  king.  The  joy  over  his  dis- 
coveries was  not  confined  to  Spain.  All  Europe  was  aroused 
with  wonder  and  admiration.  In  London,  Paris,  Lisbon, 
and  Genoa  the  name  of  Columbus  was  hailed  with  enthusi- 
asm ;  and  everybody,  including  the  great  navigator,  felt  sure 
that  Asia  had  been  reached.  When  Columbus  prepared 
for  his  second  voyage,  it  was  difficult  to  prevent  people 
from  embarking  with  him,  so  eager  were  they  to  obtain 
riches  without  effort. 

Later  Voyages.  —  Columbus  made  four  different  voyages 
to  the  region  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  On  the  third,  in  1498, 
he  touched  the  mainland  of  South  America,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Orinoco  River.  But  he  failed  to  find  the  golden 
cities  of  the  East,  and  all  those  who  had  taken  part  in  the 
expeditions,  hoping  to  become  suddenly  rich,  met  with 
only  hardship,  poverty,  and  disease.  The  blame  for  their 
troubles  and  failures  they  heaped  upon  Columbus.  Once 
he  was  taken  back  to  Spain  in  chains ;  but  the  queen,  to 
whom  he  wrote  a  touching  letter,  ordered  him  set  free. 

Neglect  and  Death. — When  the  queen,  his  best  friend, 
died,  his  enemies  showed  their  spite.  He  lost  all  his 
honors  and  his  ofhces.     Da  Gama  had  sailed  around  Africa 


296     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

to  the  Indies  and  returned  with  spices,  rich  silks,  and  wealth 
for  his  men  ;  while  Columbus  had  brought  back  only  misery. 
From  this  time  on,  Columbus  was  poor  and  neglected  and 
broken  in  health.  He  died  in  1506,  and  little  notice  was 
given  the  event.  His  body  was  first  buried  in  Spain,  but 
was  later  brought  over  and  laid  to  rest  in  the  New  World. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  was  Genoa  interested  in  new  routes?  2.  What  was 
Columbus's  early  life?  3.  Why  did  he  go  to  Portugal?  4.  Why 
was  Lisbon  the  center  of  interest  ?  5.  What  did  Columbus  gain  by 
his  marriage?  6.  Where  did  he  and  his  wife  settle?  7.  Why 
were  the  people  anxious  for  a  western  voyage  ?  8.  What  was  Colum- 
bus's plan?  9.  What  encouragement  did  he  get?  10.  Describe 
Toscanelli's  map.  11.  What  two  mistakes  did  Columbus  make  in 
his  reckonings?  12.  Why  were  these  fortunate?  13.  What  was 
the  purpose  of  his  voyage  ?  14.  Why  did  not  Portugal  help  him  ? 
15.  Why  did  Columbus  go  to  Spain?  16.  What  conditions  did  he 
find  there?  17.  What  did  the  learned  men  of  Spain  think? 
18.   Where  did  Columbus  try  to  get  aid  ?    19.   Who  finally  helped  him  ? 

20.  What  was  Columbus   to   receive  as    pay  for   his    discoveries  ? 

21.  What  did  he  intend  to  do  with  his  riches  ?  22.  What  kind  of  a  crew 
had  he?  23.  What  course  did  he  take ?  24.  Tell  about  the  super- 
stitions of  the  sailors.  25.  What  frightened  them?  26.  What 
signs  of  land  led  them  on?  27.  Describe  the  landing.  28.  What 
kind  of  reception  did  they  get?  29.  Where  did  Columbus  land? 
30.  When?  31.  Why  didn't  he  take  all  his  men  back?  32.  De- 
scribe the  hardships  of  the  homeward  voyage.  ^3-  How  long  did  it 
take?  34.  How  did  the  people  receive  Columbus?  35.  What  did 
he  think  that  he  had  discovered  ?  36.  How  many  trips  did  he  make  ? 
37.  What  became  of  Columbus?  38.  What  did  he  really  do  for  the 
world  ? 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
RACE   TO  THE   INDIES 

England  Hastens  to  Share  in  Rich  Trade.  —  When  the 
news  of  the  first  voyage  and  return  of  Columbus  reached 
England,  there  was  deep  disappointment  because  Spain, 
and  not  England,  had  been  the  path  breaker  to  the  West. 
Everybody  thought  that  Columbus  had  surely  reached 
Asia,  and  they  admired  and  praised  him  very  much.  There 
was  in  England  at  that  time  another  Italian  merchant  and 
mariner  named  John  Cabot.  He  applied  to  King  Henry 
VII  of  England  for  aid  to  sail  westward  and  share  in  the 
riches  and  honor  of  the  trade  with  China  and  Japan.  The 
king  was  glad  to  reap  where  he  had  not  sown ;  so  in  May, 
1497,  tne  Cabots,  John  and  his  son  Sebastian,  sailed  from 
Bristol  with  one  ship  and  eighteen  sailors.  A  few  weeks 
later  they  discovered  what  they  supposed  to  be  the  coast  of 
China,  but  they  probably  landed  on  Newfoundland  or 
Labrador.  They  did  not  see  any  Indians,  though  they 
found  traces  of  them  and  reported  that  "  the  natives  used 
needles  for  making  nets,  and  snares  for  catching  game." 

The  Cabots'  Return.  —  A  little  later  the  Cabots'  vessel 
returned  to  Bristol,  where  John  was  received  with  much 
honor.  We  are  told  that  the  peopfexalled  him  the  "  Great 
Admiral  and  ran  after  him  like  mad  people." 

A  Second  Voyage.  —  The  next  year  Sebastian  Cabot 
sailed  again  to  America  with  a  larger  fleet  and  coasted  along 
our  eastern  shores  for  many  hundreds  of  miles.  Like  Colum- 
bus, the  Cabots  believed  that  they  had  reached  China,  but 

297 


298    DAWN   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

they  failed  to  find  the  Spice  Islands.  Sebastian  Cabot 
carried  back  three  Indians,  but  no  silks  or  spices.  The 
voyages  were  a  failure  so  far  as  bringing  riches  to  those  who 
bore  the  expense,  and  so  the  English  did  not  follow  up  these 
discoveries.  But  a  hundred  years  later  when  England 
came  to  demand  a  share  of  the  New  World,  she  claimed  it 
because  of  Cabot's  discoveries. 

Portuguese  in  Brazil.  —  During  the  time  when  Columbus 
was  making  voyages  to  the  west,  there  was  living  in  Spain 
still  another  Italian,  named  Americus  Vespuccius,  a  native 
of  Florence,  whose  interest  in  navigation  and  trade  had  led 
him  to  Spain.  He  took  part  in  several  voyages  across  the 
Atlantic,  and  on  one  of  them  he  carried  the  flag  of  Portugal 
far  southward  along  the  coast  of  Brazil. 

The  New  Land.  —  Vespuccius  was  delighted  with  the 
balmy  climate,  the  birds  of  brilliant  plumage,  and  the  dense 
forests  of  enormous  trees.  He  visited  many  tribes  of  Indians, 
and  in  one  place  saw  salted  human  flesh  hanging  up  for 
food.  He  saw  one  cannibal  who  boasted  that  he,  himself, 
had  eaten  three  hundred  men.  Sometimes  the  Indians 
showed  fight  and  shot  arrows  at  the  newcomers,  but  a 
few  volleys  of  powder  and  lead  sent  them  scurrying  to  the 
woods. 

Describing  the  New  World.  —  Upon  his  return,  Americus 
wrote  letters  that  described  this  new  land  and  told  where 
it  was  situated.  The  geographers  were  puzzled,  for  they 
knew  well  that  Asia  did  not  extend  so  far  south.  They  still 
believed  Columbus's  discoveries  to  be  Asia,  but  what  new 
world  was  this  that  Americus  had  discovered  south  of  the 
equator  ?  This  voyage  made  a  greater  stir  among  scholars 
than  those  of  Columbus. 

Naming  the  New  Land.  —  About  this  time  a  famous 
geographer  wrote  a  little  book  in  which  he  said  that  this  new 


RACE   TO   THE   INDIES 


299 


world  of  Brazil  should  be  named  America  for  its  discoverer. 
Later  the  name  America  was  given  to  all  South  America. 
After  a  while  it  was  found  that  the  lands  north  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  were  connected  with  Brazil,  and  the  name  America 
came  to  be  applied  to  the  entire  western  continent.  So  it 
was  by  mere  accident  that  the  New  World  was  named 
America,  and  the  honor  that  was  due  Columbus  was  given 


Vasco  da  Gama  and  the  Zamorin. 


to  another.     No  one  meant  to  do  injustice   to   the  great 
navigator,  for  Columbus  and  Americus  were  friends. 

Vasco  da  Gama  Successful.  —  In  the  year  1498,  young 
Vasco  da  Gama  started  from  Lisbon  for  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  which  Diaz  had  found  ten  years  before.  He  turned 
the  cape  and  gayly  sailed  his  little  fleet  across  the  Indian 
Ocean  and  entered  the  harbor  of  Calicut  on  the  west  coast 
of  India.  Two  years  after  starting,  he  returned  to  Lisbon 
with  nutmegs  and  cloves,  pepper  and  ginger,  rubies  and 
emeralds,  silk  and  satin  cloths,  and  much  silver  and  gold. 


3oo    DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

He  had  seen  splendid  cities  and  had  talked  with  great  rulers. 
He  had  met  many  Arab  vessels,  whose  crews  looked  upon 
a  Christian  ship  with  indignation  because  they  thought 
that  it  had  no  right  to  sail  the  Indian  Ocean.  Thus  Portugal 
had  been  first  to  find  the  all-water  route  to  the  Indies,  and 
was  reaping  such  a  harvest  of  riches  that  other  nations 
were  eager  to  share  in  it. 

Groping  About  in   the  Dark.  —  Most  of   the  shores  of 
America,  from  the  coast  of  Labrador  to  the  southern  part 

of  South  America,  had  at 
this  time  been  seen  by 
different  European  explor- 
ers, but  the  geographers 
were  deeply  puzzled. 
Startling  facts  were 
brought  back  from  the 
New  World  much  faster 
than  they  could  be  gath- 
ered together  and  ex- 
plained. Geographers 
were  certain  that  South 
America  was  not  Asia, 
and  therefore  must  be  a 
new  world;  however,  the 
land  seen  by  the  Cabots 
and  Columbus  was  still  believed  to  be  China,  or  some  land 
barrier  near  Asia.  But  where  were  the  Spice  Islands? 
Somewhere  there  might  be  a  strait  leading  through  America 
into  the  Indian  Ocean,  though  no  one  had  found  it.  A  few 
men  began  to  think  of  sailing  around  South  America  to 
China,  for  they  believed  that  since  Africa  had  an  end,  the 
New  World  might  also  have  a  limit,  and,  if  so,  one  might 
sail  by  it  to  China. 


Magellan. 


RACE   TO   THE  INDIES  301 

Magellan.  —  The  bold  sailor  who  meant  to  try  this  long 
and  dangerous  voyage  was  Ferdinand  Magellan,  a  Portu- 
guese. He  proposed  the  plan  to  the  king  of  Portugal,  but 
the  king  was  unfriendly  to  him  and  turned  a  deaf  ear  to 
his  offer.  Then  Magellan  went  to  the  young  king  of 
Spain  and  persuaded  him  to  try  the  plan. 

Voyage  Round  the  World.  —  In  September,  15 19,  a 
little  fleet  of  five  vessels  departed  from  the  coast  of  Spain 
for  Asia  by  way  of  South  America.  There  were  on  board  a 
mixed  crew  of  two  hundred  and  eighty  sailors  from  various 
countries,  and  some  of  them  were  traitors  to  Magellan 
before  they  left  Spain.  They  had  not  been  at  sea  long  when 
they  were  becalmed.  So  very  quiet  was  the  atmosphere 
that  it  took  them  three  weeks  to  sail  nine  miles.  Then 
the  weather  changed,  and  the  rolling  waves  of  a  stormy 
sea  lashed  them  for  a  month.  Meanwhile  their  food  and 
water  grew  scarce. 

Reaching  America.  —  At  last,  after  threats  of  mutiny 
among  the  crews,  the  little  fleet  touched  the  coast  of 
Brazil.  Shortly  after  they  sailed  into  the  mouth  of  the 
La  Plata  River,  which  they  thought,  at  first  sight,  might  be 
a  strait  into  the  Indian  Ocean.  They  explored  this  stream 
for  three  hundred  miles,  but  found  that  it  became  narrower 
and  the  water  fresher.  So  they  concluded  that  it  was  a 
river  and  returned  to  the  sea.  Their  voyage  down  the  coast 
was  interrupted  by  storms,  and  as  winter  with  its  cold 
weather  was  approaching  they  went  into  winter  quarters 
at  Easter.  In  this  southern  land  the  winter  months  are 
the  same  as  our  summer  months. 

A  Mutiny.  —  Here  the  sailors  mutinied,  and  three  ships 
threatened  to  go  back  to  Spain,  for  their  journey  had  been 
full  of  hardships.  The  sailors  said  that  they  had  already 
gone  near  enough  to  the  south  pole,  and  they  felt  that  there 


302    DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

was  no  such  strait  into  the  Indian  Ocean  as  they  had  hoped 
to  find.  They  declared  that  their  commander,  being  a 
Portuguese,  intended  to  play  false  to  Spain,  and  so  they 
meant  to  go  back  home.  Who  was  to  prevent?  Three 
of  the  five  ships  were  in  their  hands.  But  they  did  not 
know  the  man,  Magellan.  By  a  shrewd,  bold  move,  he 
captured  one  of  their  ships ;  and  having  now  three  to  their 
two,  he  blockaded  them,  opened  fire  upon  their  ships,  and 
soon  brought  them  to  his  feet.  All  this  Magellan  did  in 
one  day.  The  leader  of  the  mutiny  was  beheaded  and  all 
others  pardoned,  after  which  there  was  no  more  disobedi- 
ence to  Magellan. 

The  Straits.  —  When  the  first  signs  of  spring  came,  late 
in  August,  the  ships  went  on  their  way  southward,  harassed 
by  frequent  storms.  Late  in  October,  they  entered  what 
some  believed  was  a  strait  through  to  the  western  ocean. 
On  both  sides  of  the  strait  were  high,  snow-capped  moun- 
tains. For  more  than  five  long  weeks  they  wound  their 
way  through  the  maze  of  bays  and  narrow  passages.  They 
kept  finding  the  water  deep  and  salt  and  were  sure  that 
they  had  discovered  the  strait.  One  ship,  however,  de- 
serted and  returned  to  Spain. 

Facing  an  Unknown  Ocean.  —  At  last  they  came  out  of 
this  long,  crooked  strait,  called  later  the  Strait  of  Magellan, 
into  an  unknown,  open  sea.  Tears  of  joy  came  to  the  eyes 
of  the  great  captain.  Many  sailors .  begged  to  go  back, 
now  that  the  long-sought  passage  had  been  found,  for 
their  provisions  were  nearly  gone ;  but  Magellan  firmly 
said  that  he  would  go  on,  "if  he  had  to  eat  the  leather  off 
the  ship's  yards." 

Sailing  the  Pacific.  —  The  great  sea  upon  which  they 
now  embarked  was  so  calm  and  peaceful  that  Magellan 
named  it  the  Pacific.     It  was  as  truly  a  Sea  of  Darkness 


RACE   TO  THE   INDIES  303 

to  Magellan  as  the  Atlantic  was  to  Columbus.  No  one 
knew  how  near  or  how  distant  was  the  coast  of  China,  but 
they  were  already  so  far  from  Spain  that  now  none  dreamed 
of  returning  home  the  way  they  came.  They  must  reach 
Asia,  or  perish  in  the  attempt.  Month  after  month  they 
sailed  on,  with  the  blue  sea  beneath  and  the  blue  sky  over- 
head. 

The  Starving  Crews.  —  At  last  they  had  sailed  twice  as 
far  from  the  straits  as  had  Columbus  in  1492  from  the 
Canaries,  and  they  were  yet  thousands  of  miles  from  Asia. 
All  their  food  was  gone,  except  some  putrid  meats.  Their 
supply  of  fresh  water  had  turned  yellow,  and  they  were 
face  to  face  with  starvation.  They  were  forced  to  eat 
skins  and  pieces  of  leather,  which  were  found  among  the 
ropes  and  rigging  of  the  ship.  The  skins  were  so  dry  and 
hard  because  of  the  hot  sun  and  winds  that  they  hung 
them  by  a  cord  into  the  sea  for  several  days  to  soften  them 
so  that  they  could  be  eaten.  Starvation  and  foul  food 
brought  on  that  dreaded  disease  of  scurvy,  and  scores  of 
poor  sailors  died,  while  many  others  were  too  sick  and  weak 
to  move  about.  But  the  sea  was  calm,  and  they  made  good 
speed,  or  they  would  all  certainly  have  died  in  mid-ocea^ 
Some  of  the  sailors  began  to  think  that  perhaps  the  world 
was  not  round  after  all,  and  that  they  were  sailing  to  cer- 
tain death  with  no  shore  before  them.  But  amid  this 
awful  suffering  and  misery,  Magellan  did  not  flinch.  The 
sailors  would  have  mutinied  many  times,  but  what  could 
they  do  ?  If  they  deserted  or  killed  Magellan,  where  could 
they  go  ?  To  turn  back  now  meant  death  before  land  could 
be  reached.     So  they  sailed  on,  no  one  knew  where. 

Land  Ahead.  —  At  last,  with  great  joy,  they  came  upon 
an  island  inhabited  by  savages,  where  they  found  plenty 
of  fruit,  fresh  vegetables,  and  meat.     It  was  one  of  the 


304    DAWN  OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 


RACE   TO  THE   INDIES  305 

Ladrone  Islands.  A  few  weeks  later  they  discovered  a 
group  of  large  islands,  which  they  called  Philippines  after 
Philip  II  of  Spain.     Asia  had  been  reached! 

The  Death  of  Magellan.  —  Here  they  met  traders  from 
China  and  the  Spice  Islands.  Now  Magellan  knew  for 
a  certainty  that  the  world  was  round,  and  he  had  won 
glory  and  fame.  While  trying  to  spread  Christianity 
upon  these  islands,  the  great  navigator  was  killed ;  but 
his  fleet  reached  the  Spice  Islands.  One  of  his  ships  sailed 
through  the  stormy  Indian  Ocean,  passed  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  crept  slowly  up  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  crossed  the 
equator,  and  on  September  6,  sailed  into  a  home  port. 

Home  at  Last.  —  Of  the  two  hundred  and  eighty  bold 
sailors  who  set  out  to  sail  around  the  world,  only  eighteen 
haggard,  suffering  men  had  lived  to  reach  home  again.  It 
was  the  greatest  voyage  ever  undertaken,  and  its  bold  hero 
must  be  given  the  title  of  the  Prince  of  Navigators.  He 
not  only  proved  the  world  to  be  round,  but  he  showed 
clearly  that  the  great  continent  of  America  was  separated 
from  Asia  by  an  ocean  thousands  of  miles  wide.  Europeans 
began  slowly  to  realize  that  Columbus  had  discovered  a 
grand  new  continent  much  nearer  to  Europe  than  it  was 
to  Asia. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  For  whom  did  the  Cabots  sail?  2.  Where  did  they  explore? 
3.  Why  did  not  other  English  sailors  follow  up  the  Cabots  ?  4.  How 
did  America  come  to  be  so  named  ?  5.  Tell  about  De  Gama's  voyage. 
6.  Why  were  the  people  so  puzzled  about  America?  7.  Describe 
Magellan's  voyage.  8.  Was  he  a  greater  man  than  Columbus? 
9.   Why,  or  why  not  ? 


CHAPTER  XXV 

THE    SPANIARDS   IN   AMERICA 

Short-cut  to  China.  —  Two  all-water  routes  to  Asia  and 
the  Spice  Islands  had  now  been  found,  and  either  called 
for  a  long,  long  voyage  for  the  slow-sailing  vessels  of  those 
days.  America  was  very  much  nearer  to  Europe  than  was 
Asia,  and  a  race  began  for  the  possession  of  the  riches  of 
the  New  World.  The  explorers,  one  and  all,  however,  hoped 
that  in  their  search  for  gold  in  America  they  might  find  a 
short-cut  through  America  to  China.  For  a  hundred  years 
yet  it  was  the  dream  of  Spanish,  French,  and  English 
navigators  to  find  a  strait  through  North  America  to  the 
Pacific.  The  Potomac,  the  Hudson,  the  St.  Lawrence, 
every  large  bay  and  river  was  at  first  looked  upon  as  the 
long-sought  passage  through  the  continent,  so  eager  were 
all  to  discover  a  shorter  route  than  that  by  Good  Hope  or 
the  Straits  of  Magellan. 

Spain  Takes  the  Lead.  —  For  several  hundred  years  the 
knights  and  warriors  of  Spain  had  won  glory  and  honor 
in  the  long  wars  against  the  Moors.  Now  the  Moors  were 
expelled,  and  the  brave  Spanish  knights  who  had  lost  the 
habit  of  work  must  seek  glory  and  adventure  elsewhere. 
Every  ship  from  the  west  brought  home  to  Spain  marvelous 
stories;  and  America  became  to  these  people  a  land  of 
wonder  and  promise.  Thus  adventurers  by  the  hundred 
were  eager  to  spread  their  sails  for  the  west ;  and  Spain 
quickly  took  the  lead  in  the  exploration  and  discovery  of 
the  New  World. 

306 


THE   SPANIARDS   IN   AMERICA 


3°7 


Why  They  Came.  —  Some  of  the  explorers  came  in  the 
king's  service;  others  fitted  out  expeditions  to  roam  over 
land  and  sea  at  their  own  expense.  The  chief  reasons  for 
their  coming  were  a  thirst  for  gold  and  a  love  of  adventure ; 
but  there  was  another  object.  For  centuries  Spain  had 
been  fighting  for  the  cause  of  the  church ;  hence  her  people 
came  to  look  upon 
themselves  as  the 
chief  defenders  of 
the  cross,  and  to 
have  much  of  the 
missionary  spirit. 
There  was  a  fine 
field  in  which  to 
spread  the  faith 
among  the  children 
of  the  American 
forests;  and  so 
these  rough  and 
wicked  explorers, 
amidst  their  search 
for  gold,  tried  to 
convert  the  red 
men  to  Christian- 
ity. 

The  First  Settlements.  —  Settlements  were  first  made 
upon  the  islands  of  the  West  Indies.  With  these  as  a  base 
of  supplies,  the  daring  explorers  pushed  boldly  on  to  the 
mainland,  and  before  long,  large  portions  of  South  Amer- 
ica, Mexico,  and  the  United  States  were  overrun  by  these 
searchers  for  gold. 

Cortes.  —  Among  the  men  who  helped  to  fasten  the 
Spanish  grip  upon  America  was  Hernando  Cortes.      He 


Cortes. 


308    DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

belonged  to  a  noble  Spanish  family,  who  had  lost  its  wealth 
and  position.  When  he  grew  to  manhood,  young  Cortes 
resolved  upon  a  life  of  adventure  in  America,  where  he 
hoped  to  find  riches  enough  to  restore  his  family  to  its  old 
position  of  influence  and  power.  He  practiced  horseman- 
ship and  the  use  of  arms,  and  at  last  he  attracted  attention. 

On  to  Mexico.  —  Soon  we  find  Cortes  in  Cuba,  whose 
governor  sent  him  to  conquer  and  settle  Mexico.  He  set 
out  from  Cuba  (1518)  with  ten  vessels,  six  hundred  soldiers, 
eighteen  horsemen,  and  some  pieces  of  cannon.  In  due 
time  he  landed  safely  upon  the  mainland  of  Mexico.  The 
noise  of  his  cannon,  the  appearance  of  horses  and  warships, 
all  of  which  were  new  to  the  Indians,  spread  terror  among 
them.  They  looked  upon  the  Spaniards  as  gods,  and 
quickly  sent  them  many  rich  presents. 

Montezuma.  —  Cortes  learned  of  the  great  Indian  king, 
Montezuma,  who  reigned  over  a  vast  empire.  Monte- 
zuma's riches  were  untold,  and  his  word  was  law  throughout 
the  vast  country  of  Mexico.  Cortes  first  founded  the  city 
of  Vera  Cruz  as  a  base  for  supplies ;  and  then  burning  his 
ships,  so  that  his  soldiers  would  know  that  they  must  win 
or  perish,  he  set  out  to  conquer  the  great  Indian  king. 
Although  Cortes  had  but  a  handful  of  soldiers,  a  horse  and 
a  gun  were  so  terrible  to  the  natives  that  he  had  a  great 
advantage.  With  some  tribes,  who  were  hostile  to  Monte- 
zuma, Cortes  made  friends ;  and  many  natives  joined  his 
army.  Other  tribes  he  put  to  flight  with  his  horsemen  and 
cannon. 

Approaching  a  Great  City.  —  At  last,  with  six  thousand 
natives  and  a  few  hundred  Spaniards  at  his  back,  Cortes 
came  in  sight  of  a  lake  in  the  midst  of  which  was  built  the 
city  of  Mexico,  Montezuma's  beautiful  capital.  Monte- 
zuma received  Cortes  with  great  pomp;    and  his  millions 


THE   SPANIARDS   IN   AMERICA 


3°9 


of  subjects,  who  believed  the  strange  white  king  to  be  a 
descendant  of  the  sun,  cast  themselves  upon  the  ground 
before  him.  But  later,  when  the  Indians  saw  the  head  of 
another  Spaniard  —  an  enemy  who  had  just  landed  at  Vera 
Cruz — sent  to  Cortes,  they  no  longer  believed  the  Spaniards 
to  be  immortal.  Noting  how  few  there  were  of  the  white 
men,  and  having  by  now  less  fear  of  their  horses,  the 
Indians  were  ready  to  fight  to  be  rid  of  their  enemies. 

Seizing  the  Indian  King.  —  But  Cortes  fortified  himself 
in  one  of  the  palaces,  seized  Montezuma,  and  put  him  in 
irons.  He  burned  several  Indian  warriors  before  the  gates 
of  the  palace,  and  succeeded  in  awing  the  swarming  red  men 
for  a  time.  Though  Montezuma  gave  them  a  vast  amount 
of  pure  gold  and  an  untold  quantity  of  precious  stones  to 
purchase  his  freedom,  the  Spaniards  continued  to  hold  him 
a  prisoner. 

Warring  Against  Great  Odds.  —  Fighting  broke  out  many 
times ;  and  it  seemed  as  though  Cortes  and  his  little  band 
of  Spaniards  were  about  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  howl- 
ing savages,  who  outnumbered  them  five  hundred  to  one. 
But  a  few  slight  victories  gave  the  Indians  too  much  con- 
fidence, for  they  risked  an  engagement  upon  an  open  plain. 
This  was  just  the  chance  Cortes  desired.  He  gave  the 
signal  for  battle  ;  and  his  well- trained  troops,  with  good 
arms  and  cannon,  won  a  great  victory.  This  broke  the 
spirit  of  the  Indians,  and  Mexico  was  conquered  and  made 
a  Spanish  province  (1520).  Mines  were  discovered,  and 
much  gold  and  silver  were  carried  to  Spain.  This  caused 
a  wild  scramble  for  the  riches  of  America. 

Balboa  on  the  Isthmus.  —  After  the  Spaniards  had 
explored  and  made  settlements  upon  the  Isthmus  of 
Darien  (now  Panama),  the  government  was  placed  in  the 
hands  of  a  noble  named  Balboa.     In  his  journeys  among 


310    DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

the  Indian  tribes  on  the  isthmus,  Balboa  received  from  an 
Indian  chief  a  present  of  a  large  amount  of  gold.  When 
they  attempted  to  divide  it,  the  greedy  Spaniards  fell  to 
quarreling. 

News  of  a  Golden  Land.  —  The  eldest  son  of  the  chief 
was  surprised  at  their  greed  :  "  What  is  this,  Christians?  " 
said  he.  "  Is  it  for  such  a  little  thing  that  you  quarrel? 
If  you  have  such  a  love  of  gold,  I  will  show  you  a  country 
where  you  may  have  all  you  want.  But  you  must  have  a 
large  army,  for  you  will  have  to  fight  your  way  with  great 
kings  " ;  and  the  Indian  pointed  southward  toward  a  sea 
which  would  carry  them  to  the  golden  kingdom  where,  he 
said,  the  people  had  so  much  of  the  yellow  metal  that  they 
ate  and  drank  out  of  golden  vessels. 

A  White  Man  Sees  the  Pacific.  —  Balboa  resolved  to  be 
the  discoverer  of  that  sea  to  which  the  Indian  pointed.  So 
he  set  out  to  cross  the  isthmus.  After  a  toilsome  march, 
Balboa's  company  approached  the  top  of  the  mountain 
range  from  which  the  Indians  had  said  that  he  might  be- 
hold the  other  sea.  Wishing  to  be  alone,  Balboa  bade  his 
men  sit  down  while  he  went  on.  When  he  had  reached  the 
summit,  he  looked  out  upon  the  vast  Pacific  Ocean,  which 
occupies  more  than  one-half  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
Balboa  descended  to  the  coast  and  waded  into  the  surf. 
Then  he  drew  his  sword  and  took  possession  of  this  unknown 
sea  for  the  Spanish  king  (15 13).  From  the  Indians  here, 
he  received  a  great  amount  of  gold  and  two  hundred  and 
forty  large  pearls.  Among  the  Spanish  soldiers  there  was 
a  wild  hunt  for  more  treasures. 

Pizarro.  —  With  Balboa  was  a  soldier  named  Pizarro, 
who  was  much  interested  in  what  he  heard  of  the  golden 
kingdom  far  away  to  the  southward.  Pizarro  saw  no 
chance  for  himself  as  long  as  Balboa  held  the  leadership  of 


THE   SPANIARDS   IN   AMERICA 


3" 


the  expedition  ;  so  he  became  jealous  and  joined  the  leader's 
enemies,  who  hatched  a  plot  and  promptly  put  the  noble 
Balboa  to  death. 

Bound  for  Peru.  —  Some  years  later  Pizarro  sailed  down 
along  the  west  coast  of  South  America  beyond  the  equator, 
until  he  came  near  the  country  of  the  Incas,  the  land  of 


Balboa  Sighting  the  Pacific. 


gold.  Pizarro  saw  enough  to  convince  him  that  they  were 
indeed  very  near  the  golden  kingdom,  for  they  picked  up 
rich  articles  in  trade.  Here  they  first  saw  llamas.  They 
also  traded  for  beautiful  vases  of  gold  and  silver,  and  gar- 
ments of  fine  wool.  Having  but  a  small  party,  Pizarro 
returned  to  Panama  and  hastened  to  Spain,  where  he  ob- 
tained the  right  to  conquer  and  rule  such  new  lands  as  he 
might  discover.  With  a  much  stronger  army,  he  again 
crossed  the  isthmus  and  sailed  for  Peru. 


312     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

First  News  of  the  White  Men.  —  The  Inca  chief  heard 
with  dread  of  the  coming  of  the  bearded,  white  strangers. 
They  thought  that  the  Spanish  horses  were  unearthly 
monsters,  and  that  the  lightning  and  thunderbolts  of  their 
guns  were  great  and  awful  mysteries. 

The  Indian  of  Peru.  —  After  a  long  march,  Pizarro 
found  the  capital  of  the  Incas.  The  city  contained  many 
thousands  of  people,  who  lived  chiefly  in  houses  of  adobe 
brick  with  thatched  roofs.  These  Indians  were  well  ad- 
vanced toward  civilization.  They  wore  cotton  cloth  and 
used  weapons  pointed  with  copper  and  bronze. 

The  Golden  Kingdom.  —  All  the  utensils  of  the  palace  and 
those  in  the  temples  of  the  Incas  were  of  gold.  Outside  the 
temple  was  a  garden  of  artificial  plants  with  the  leaves, 
fruit,  and  stalks  of  pure  gold.  The  buildings  were  large 
and  stately.  The  palace  had  terraced  gardens,  baths,  and 
fountains.  The  Indians  were  skilled  in  agriculture.  Dry 
waste  lands  were  irrigated,  and  the  mountain  sides  were 
terraced,  sometimes  a  hundred  terraces  deep,  for  the  pur- 
poses of  farming.  They  had  built  up  a  splendid  system  of 
level,  well-paved  roads,  on  which  travel  was  easy  and  speedy. 
The  Inca  chief  often  ate  fresh  fish  that  had  been  caught 
a  day  or  so  before  in  the  Pacific,  three  hundred  miles  away. 
Vast  flocks  of  llamas  and  alpacas  supplied  meat  for  food, 
and  wool  for  fine  cloth.  In  many  ways  these  Indians  had 
reached  a  higher  civilization  than  had  those  who  were  now 
about  to  conquer  them. 

The  Inca  in  Prison.  —  The  Inca  looked  upon  the  visitors 
as  sky-gods,  and  received  them  most  politely.  However, 
when  the  Spaniards  saw  the  many  thousands  of  red  men, 
they  realized  that  their  safety  lay  in  frightening  the  natives. 
They  followed  the  example  of  Cortes  in  Mexico  by  seizing 
and  imprisoning  the  Inca. 


THE   SPANIARDS   IN   AMERICA  313 

Buying  His  Freedom.  —  The  chief  was  placed  in  a  room 
about  the  size  of  a  schoolroom.  The  frightened  Indian 
made  a  mark  on  the  wall  as  high  as  he  could  reach,  and 
offered  to  fill  the  room  to  that  mark  with  gold  if  they  would 
set  him  free.  Pizarro  accepted  the  offer,  and,  it  is  said, 
gold  was  collected  to  the  amount  of  $15,000,000.  There 
were,  besides,  great  treasures  of  silver.  All  this  wealth 
was  divided  among  the  Spaniards. 

Inca's  Death.  —  The  swarms  of  Indians  became  so 
unfriendly  that  Pizarro  felt  that  he  must  do  something  to 
frighten  them  or  they  would  overwhelm  the  Spaniards. 
So  he  led  Inca  out  into  a  public  place,  after  having  taken 
all  the  gold  that  he  had  gathered,  and  killed  him  before 
the  eyes  of  his  people. 

Peru  Conquered.  —  Before  the  Indians  had  their  revenge, 
more  Spaniards  came.  They  now  numbered  five  hundred 
men.  Very  shortly  they  routed  the  red  men  and  brought 
them  to  their  knees.  Thus  Peru,  the  land  of  the  Incas, 
was  conquered  and  added  to  the  domains  of  Spain.  When 
Pizarro  landed  in  Europe  with  his  load  of  riches,  there 
was  the  wildest  excitement.  Again  the  Spaniards  began 
flocking  to  America  in  search  of  gold. 

Ponce  de  Leon.  —  One  of  the  first  explorers  to  push  into 
the  wilderness  of  what  is  now  the  United  States  was  a 
Spaniard  named  Ponce  de  Leon,  who  had  been  with  Colum- 
bus on  his  second  voyage.  Ponce  de  Leon,  now  an  old 
man,  had  often  heard  of  the  fountain  of  youth.  Those 
who  drank  at  this  fountain  were  said  to  be  cured  of  all 
disease  and  to  become  young  again. 

Searching  for  the  Fountain  of  Youth.  —  From  the  Indians 
in  Cuba,  De  Leon  learned  that  this  fountain  was  to  be  found 
somewhere  to  the  northwest.  So  he  obtained  permission 
from  King  Ferdinand  to  search  it  out.     He  touched  the 


314    DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

mainland  near  what  is  now  St.  Augustine,  on  Easter 
Sunday  (15 13).  De  Leon  was  charmed  with  the  beautiful 
foliage  and  the  many  bright  flowers.  It  was  because  of 
this  that  he  named  the  new  land  Florida,  which,  in  Spanish, 
means  the  land  of  flowers. 

Attempt  to  Settle  Florida.  —  De  Leon  coasted  around  the 
peninsula  of  Florida,  but  on  account  of  trouble  with  the 
Indians,  he  returned  to  Cuba.  He  came  to  Florida  a  few 
years  later  with  settlers  for  a  colony.  This  time  the 
Indians  attacked  him  with  great  fury.  Instead  of  finding 
the  fountain  of  youth,  De  Leon  was  wounded  by  an  Indian 
arrow  and  went  back  to  Cuba  to  die. 

De  Soto.  —  Among  the  followers  of  Pizarro,  who  shared 
in  the  rich  plunder  of  the  Incas,  was  one  named  Ferdinand 
De  Soto.  De  Soto  returned  to  Spain  with  immense  wealth 
and  lived  like  a  king,  until  he  spent  the  most  of  his  riches. 
Then  he  decided  to  find  another  golden  kingdom  and  again 
to  line  his  pockets  with  its  spoil. 

In  Florida.  —  Hearing  of  Florida,  he  secured  permission 
to  explore  and  conquer  this  land  of  flowers.  With  about 
five  hundred  men  and  half  as  many  horses,  De  Soto  landed 
at  Tampa  Bay.  He  was  immediately  set  upon  by  swarms 
of  howling  Indians,  who  drove  the  Spaniards  to  their 
ships.  But  De  Soto  bravely  put  his  men  ashore  again  in 
order  of  battle  and  began  his  long,  long  march  in  search 
of  new  treasures. 

The  Indians  Unfriendly.  —  The  Indians  had  been  so 
horribly  abused  by  other  explorers  that  De  Soto  could  not 
win  their  friendship,  although  he  sent  many  presents  to 
their  chiefs.  One  old  chief  sent  this  reply  to  his  offers  of 
peace :  "  Others  of  your  accursed  race,  in  years  past,  have 
poisoned  our  shores.  They  have  taught  me  what  you  are. 
What  is  your  employment?     To  wander  about  like  vaga- 


THE   SPANIARDS   IN   AMERICA 


315 


bonds  from  land  to  land ;  to  rob  the  poor,  to  murder  the 
weak?  With  such  people  I  want  no  friendship.  War 
never  ending,  war  to  the  death  is  all  I  ask." 

Endless  Wandering.  —  The  Spaniards  continued  their 
mad  search  for  gold.  Suns  rose  and  set ;  weeks  and  months 
passed  by ;  and  all  the  while  the  Spanish  army  was  wander- 
ing about  in  the  deep  wilderness,  often  through  swamps  and 


De  Soto's  Discovery  of  the  Mississippi. 

marshes.     They  got  their  food  from  the  Indian  cornfields, 
and  from  the  herds  of  hogs  that  they  drove  with  them. 

Indian  Fighting.  —  They  passed  through  Florida  and 
Alabama,  sometimes  righting  all-day  battles  with  the  fierce 
red  men.  In  one  great  Indian  battle  De  Soto  lost  one 
hundred  and  seventy  men.  Though  this  was  a  small 
number  compared  with  the  Indians  who  fell,  the  Spanish 
leader  could  not  afford  many  such  victories.     Two  years 


316    DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

of  aimless  wandering  had  passed,  and  De  Soto  was  sad 
and  weary ;  but  he  was  too  proud  to  give  up  and  go  home 
a  poor  man. 

The  Mississippi.  —  In  1541,  De  Soto  came  upon  a  great 
river  more  than  a  mile  wide.  It  was  the  Mississippi. 
For  countless  ages  the  majestic  stream  had  flowed  on, 
unknown  to  civilized  man.  But  De  Soto  cared  not  for  the 
glory  of  discovering  a  new  river ;  he  was  in  search  of  gold, 
and  gold,  alone,  would  satisfy  him  and  his  greedy  followers. 

Exploring  the  West.  —  They  crossed  the  great  Mississippi 
and  spent  a  year  searching  through  the  present  states  of 
Arkansas  and  Missouri.  In  this  year  of  hardship  and  suffer- 
ing, many  of  the  men  died  of  disease  or  in  battle  with  the 
red  men. 

De  Soto's  Death.  —  And  now  De  Soto  was  worn  out.  He 
returned  to  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi,  where  he  soon 
fell  ill  of  a  fever  and  died.  In  order  that  the  prowling 
Indians  might  not  know  of  the  death  of  their  great  leader, 
the  Spaniards  buried  him  at  dead  of  night  in  the  bosom  of 
the  wonderful  river  that  he  had  discovered.  De  Soto's 
followers  then  built  rude  ships,  floated  down  the  river  to 
the  gulf,  and  arrived,  at  last,  at  a  Spanish  colony  in  Mexico. 

Menendez  in  Florida.  —  A  Spaniard,  named  Pedro 
Menendez,  was  bent  upon  founding  a  colony  in  Florida, 
and  Philip  II  gave  his  permission.  With  a  fine  fleet  of 
thirty-four  vessels  and  more  than  two  thousand  persons 
in  his  company,  Menendez  spread  his  sails  for  the  sunny 
land.  Hearing  of  a  colony  of  French  Protestants  who  had 
already  settled  in  Florida,  Menendez  vowed  that  he  would 
hang  every  Frenchman  he  found  there ;  first,  because  they 
were  on  the  domains  of  Spain,  and  next,  because  they  were 
heretics  who  had  broken  away  from  the  Catholic  faith. 
He  kept  his  pledge,  and  the  band  of  Frenchmen  were  slain. 


THE   SPANIARDS   IN   AMERICA 


3*7 


St.  Augustine.  —  Menendez  founded  the  first  permanent 
European  settlement  within  the  present  boundary  of  the 
United  States  at  St.  Augustine  in  1565.  It  then  appeared 
as  though  Spain  were  to  get  a  grip  upon  the  fairest  portions 


St.  Augustine,  Florida. 

of  North  America.     However,  Europe  was  at  this  time  torn 

asunder  with  religious  wars,  and  we  must  notice  how  this 

contest  affected  Spain's  hold  upon  what  is  now  the  United 

States. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  did  Spain  take  the  lead  in  exploring?  2.  Why  did  she 
send  men  to  America?  3.  Where  did  Cortes  explore?  4.  What 
city  did  he  found  ?  5.  What  did  he  do  in  America  ?  6.  What  did 
Spain  claim  because  of  his  work?  7.  Tell  about  Balboa's  work. 
8.  What  civilization  did  Pizarro  rind  ?  9.  How  do  you  account  for 
it?  10.  How  did  he  conquer  Peru?  11.  What  do  you  think  of 
Pizarro?  12.  What  Spanish  navigators  have  we  already  studied? 
13.  Review  the  work  of  each.  14.  For  what  was  Ponce  de  Leon 
hunting?  15.  Where  did  he  explore?  16.  Who  was  De  Soto? 
17.  For  what  was  he  looking  ?  18.  How  did  the  Indians  feel  toward 
him?  19.  Where  did  he  travel?  20.  Who  made  the  first  settle- 
ment in  America?  21.  Where?  22.  Because  of  her  explorations, 
how  much  and  what  part  of  America  did  Spain  claim? 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
RISE    OF   THE    PROTESTANTS 

Rome  sheltered  Many  Faiths.  —  The  Roman  Empire, 
as  we  have  read,  permitted  people  of  all  religions  within 
its  realms,  and  they  were  allowed  to  worship  as  they  pleased. 
There  were,  therefore,  many  different  faiths  in  the  wide 
boundaries  of  the  Empire.  But  at  last  Christianity  became 
the  leading  religion,  and  all  other  faiths  declined. 

The  Christian  Church.  —  Finally  the  Empire  fell,  its 
government  went  to  pieces,  and  the  church  largely  took  its 
place.  Since  there  was  no  power  or  authority  left  to  keep 
order,  the  Christian  bishops  stood  forth  to  protect  the  people 
and  to  check  the  bloodshed  and  lawlessness  and  crime. 

Church  and  State  One.  —  The  church  became  so  woven 
into  the  government  that  they  were  really  one  power,  or, 
as  we  would  say,  the  church  and  the  state  were  united. 
In  our  country  the  church  and  the  government  are  entirely 
separate,  but  in  some  lands  to-day  the  two  are  united. 
Nearly  all  the  people  of  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages 
were  Christian  Catholics  and  they  never  thought  of  the 
church  apart  from  the  government.  For  many  centuries 
the  church  did  more  to  keep  order  than  the  state,  and  it 
therefore  deserved  to  have  a  voice  in  all  matters  of  govern- 
ment. In  the  choice  of  kings  and  of  emperors  the  decision 
was  often  left  to  the  pope.  Sometimes  he  uncrowned  a 
king  and  selected  another  to  fill  his  place.  In  fact,  at  this 
time  there  were  only  two  classes  that  had  anything  to  say 

318 


RISE   OF   THE   PROTESTANTS 


319 


regarding  how  laws  should  be  made  and  how  they  should 
be  enforced.  These  were  the  clergy  and  the  nobles.  After 
the  crusades  a  third  power  came  forth  to  demand  a  share  in 
law-making,  and  this  was  the  Third  Estate  or  the  cities. 

Disputing  Church  Authority.  —  Then  as  nations  grew  up 
in  Europe  and  their  kings  became  stronger  they  were  less 
willing  to  obey  the  pope's  commands,  and  thus  there  arose 


The  Vatican,  the  Pope's  Palace,  Rome. 


many  wars  between  the  kings  and  the  head  of  the  church. 
But  the  pope  was  strong:  not  only  did  he  have  a  voice  in 
the  governments  of  all  the  countries  of  Western  Europe, 
but  there  were  large  portions  of  Italy  that  belonged  abso- 
lutely to  the  church,  and  over  these  sections  the  pope 
ruled  much  the  same  as  did  kings  in  other  countries. 

The  Vast  Wealth  of  the  Church.  —  In  every  Christian 
country,  in  every  county,  and  city,  and  village,  the  church 
owned  property;  and  this  amounted  to  untold  riches. 
This  wealth  of  possession  came  to  the  church  in  much  the 
same  way  as  the  monasteries  obtained  their  wide  domains. 
Most  of  it  came  as  gifts  from  pious  and  zealous  Catholics 
of  means  who  wished  to  aid  the  cause  of  the  church.     Many 


320      DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

Christian  princes  and  nobles,  who  died  without  children  to 
inherit  their  property,  gave  their  entire  estates  to  the  church. 
Some  gave  rich  gifts  during  their  days  of  prosperity  because 
good  fortune  had  followed  them  and  they  believed  their 
health  and  success  was  due  to  the  favor  of  heaven.  Others 
celebrated  happy  occasions  and  special  good  fortune  by  a 
gift  to  the  mother  church.  The  wealth  of  the  church  in- 
creased, not  only  by  gifts  of  money  and  property  and  the 
accumulation  of  money  and  rent,  but  through  the  natural 
increase  in  the  value  of  their  lands,  much  of  which  they 
had  greatly  improved.  The  power  and  wealth  of  the 
church  naturally  led  some  unworthy  men  to  seek  positions 
within  the  church  and  even  to  become  priests  and  bishops, 
not  so  much  to  aid  in  good  deeds  and  holy  service,  but  to 
secure  an  influential  position  or  a  place  of  ease  and  com- 
fort. In  this  they  were  sometimes  successful,  and  when 
they  had  once  succeeded  in  getting  into  the  church  it  was 
very  difficult  to  rid  the  church  of  these  selfish  men. 

A  Noble  Reformer.  —  Then  there  came  to  the  papal  chair 
one  of  the  noblest  men  of  the  Dark  Ages,  Pope  Sylvester. 
He  loved  learning,  and  tried  to  awaken  the  thirst  for  knowl- 
edge. In  many  places  he  found  men  ignorant  and  supersti- 
tious. Sylvester  also  tried  to  reform  the  church,  to  put 
godly  men  in  the  places  held  by  the  unworthy  and  the  selfish. 
His  life  was  one  long  struggle  against  wickedness,  and  he  died 
after  ruling  the  church  only  a  few  years.  The  time  had  been 
too  short  to  root  out  all  the  wickedness  that  had  crept  in. 
New  Learning  in  Italy.  —  After  the  Crusades,  the  Italian 
towns  became  immensely  rich  through  the  trade  with  the 
East.  Men  now  had  money,  and  with  money  came  leisure 
—  time  to  read  and  to  think.  The  people  of  means  not  only 
wished  to  see  more  of  the  world,  but  they  were  eager  to  know 
what  was  written  in  books. 


RISE   OF  THE   PROTESTANTS 


321 


Petrarch.  —  The  most  famous  scholar  of  the  time  was  an 
Italian  poet  named  Petrarch.  In  his  youth  he  wanted  to 
read  Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts  and  to  know  all  that  the 
old  Romans  and  Greeks  had  known.  Petrarch's  father, 
however,  wished  his  son  to  become  a  lawyer ;  and  when  the 
boy  spent  his  money 
on  Greek  and  Latin 
books,  the  father 
threw  them  into  the 
fire.  But  when  he 
saw  the  deep  grief  of 
his  son,  he  snatched 
the  books  out  again. 
So  Petrarch  was  per- 
mitted to  study  the 
dusty  books  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  au- 
thors. He  soon  be- 
came a  famous  poet 
and  scholar,  and  col- 
lected many  old 
books,  or  manu- 
scripts. 

Petrarch  a  Teacher. 
— He  showed  people 
how  to  read  these  old 
writings,  and  how  to 
compare  them  with  one  another  to  see  whether  some  of  them 
were  copied  from  others,  or  whether  all  of  them  were  copied 
from  old  books  that  had  decayed  or  been  lost.  Thus 
scholars  came  to  be  fine  judges  of  the  writings  of  the  old 
Romans  and  Greeks,  and  could  pick  out  the  mistakes  and 
errors  that  had  crept  in  through  the  different  slaves  and 


Petrarch. 


322     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

monks  who  had  written  out  these  parchment  books. 
Petrarch  became  famous  among  scholars,  princes,  and  other 
great  men.  He  was  a  tireless  worker,  and  even  old  age  could 
not  check  his  study.  One  morning  at  the  ripe  age  of 
seventy  he  was  found  dead  in  his  library. 

Learning  Awakes.  —  Petrarch  had  started  a  great  move- 
ment, which  we  call  the  Revival  of  Learning ;  for,  as  you 
know,  learning  had  slept  for  ages.  Petrarch  had  many 
followers,  and  they  continued  to  search  the  monasteries  and 
churches  of  Italy  for  the  long-lost  books  of  the  old  authors. 
They  found  old  Latin  books  and  learned  to  read  them. 
Many  became  fine  Latin  scholars.  The  enthusiasm  for 
this  learning  spread  over  Italy  and  to  other  countries  of 
western  Europe. 

Greek  Learning  Saved.  —  When  the  Turks  were  about 
to  capture  Constantinople,  scores  of  learned  men  of  that 
city  took  ship  for  Italy,  bringing  with  them  a  knowledge 
of  the  Greek  language  and  many  rare  old  books  written  in 
that  tongue.  There  had  been  Greek  scholars  in  Italy  be- 
fore this  time,  but  now  came  many  more,  with  treasures  of 
writings  of  the  old  authors  of  Athens.  They  received  a 
hearty  welcome  in  Italy.  Students  began  to  read  the  Greek 
manuscripts  eagerly,  and  they  urged  their  friends  to  do  the 
same.  Gradually  a  knowledge  of  Greek  literature  and  a 
love  for  it  spread  over  Europe.  "  I  have  given  up  my  whole 
soul  to  Greek  learning,"  said  Erasmus,  "  and  as  soon  as  I 
get  more  money  I  shall  buy  Greek  books  —  and  then  I 
shall  buy  some  clothes." 

Studying  the  Bible.  —  The  light  of  this  new  learning 
and  study  was  turned  upon  the  silly  superstitions  of  that 
ignorant  time.  It  was  also  turned  upon  the  church  and 
the  Bible.  It  was  found  that  the  Bible  in  the  Greek  lan- 
guage and  the  same  book  in  Latin  did  not  read  exactly 


RISE   OF    THE   PROTESTANTS  323 

alike,  and  some  claimed  that  mistakes  had  been  made  in 
translating  the  Bible  from  Greek  into  Latin.  Students  of 
the  new  learning  in  many  lands  began  to  doubt  the  correct- 
ness of  many  passages  of  the  Latin  Bible.  The  bolder 
critics  began  to  point  out  what  they  thought  were  evils  in 
the  church  and  among  the  clergy.  Thus  men  began  to  dis- 
agree and  to  dispute  about  questions  of  religion. 

The  Inquisition.  —  For  nearly  a  thousand  years  there 
had  been  but  one  church  and  one  religion  in  all  Western 
Europe.  To  break  away  from  the  church  was  believed  to 
be  the  worst  possible  sin  and  to  deserve  the  severest  pun- 
ishment. Even  the  civil  authorities  believed  that  a  rebel- 
lion against  the  church  would  be  followed  immediately  by 
a  rebellion  against  the  government.  Consequently  in- 
quisitors were  often  appointed  to  examine  doubters  or  here- 
tics, and  when  found  guilty  they  were  punished  severely, 
even  with  the  burning  of  the  guilty  ones  at  the  stake. 

Block  Books.  —  Some  years  before  the  time  of  Columbus 
the  printing  press  had  been  invented  (1438).  Books  now 
became  cheap.  The  old  methods  of  making  books  by  copy- 
ing with  pen  and  ink  was  slow  and  tiresome.  The  use  of 
parchment,  or  sheepskin,  instead  of  paper,  made  books 
very  costly,  and  few  people  could  afford  to  own  one.  A 
way  was  then  invented  to  print  a  whole  page  at  once.  The 
printer  took  a  block  of  wood  or  a  board  the  size  of  the  page 
he  wished  to  make,  and  on  it  he  drew  the  outline  of  the 
letters  of  all  the  words  on  the  page.  Then  with  slow  and 
toilsome  care  he  cut  away  the  wood,  leaving  the  letters 
raised.  By  inking  this  and  pressing  it  upon  the  paper,  an 
entire  page  was  printed  at  once.  Such  books  were  called 
block  books ;  and  while  they  were  cheaper  than  the  manu- 
script books,  it  was  still  a  costly  process  to  print  them,  for 
it  was  slow  work  to  cut  a  block  for  each  page.     Moreover, 


324    DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 


these  expensive  blocks  were  useless  except  for  this  par- 
ticular book,  and  it  seemed  a  great  waste  of  time  and  labor 
to  throw  them  away. 

John  Gutenberg.  —  About  this  time  a  printer  named 
John  Gutenberg,  who  lived  in  Germany,  began  to  dream  of 
a  better  method.  At  last  the  idea  came  to  him  of  cutting 
each  letter  from  a  separate  piece  of  wood  and  then  binding 

these  letter  blocks 
together  to  form 
a  page.  These 
page  forms  might 
be  broken  up  and 
used  again  and 
again,  for  differ- 
ent pages  or  books 
until  they  were 
worn  out.  Mak- 
ing movable  type 
was  a  great  in- 
vention, but  it 
was  still  a  hard 
task  to  print  a 
book.  Gutenberg 
learned  to  mold 
his  type  of  metal,  for  the  wooden  letter  blocks  soon  wore  out. 
Then  he  crowned  his  great  work  by  making  a  printing  press. 
New  Religious  Sects.  —  Printing  presses  were  soon  in 
demand  in  every  country  of  Europe.  They  could  not  be 
set  up  fast  enough.  Everybody  could  now  afford  to  own  a 
few  books.  The  Bible  was  quickly  translated  into  German, 
English,  and  other  languages,  and  the  common  people  began 
to  read  it.  This  greatly  hastened  the  spread  of  the  new 
learning,  and  set  people  to  thinking  for  themselves  about 


Gutenberg's  Press. 


RISE  OF   THE   PROTESTANTS 


325 


the  Bible.  The  more  they  thought,  the  more  differences  of 
opinion  there  were  about  religious  things.  Thus  there 
arose  many  different  sects. 

Martin  Luther.  —  Martin  Luther  was  born  at  Eisleben 
and  spent  his  early  childhood  at  Mansfield  in  Saxony. 


Martin  Luther. 

After  he  had  completed  his  studies  in  the  University  of 
Erfurt  he  entered  the  Augustinian  monastery  at  that  place. 
A  few  years  later  he  was  appointed  a  professor  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wittenberg  and  a  lecturer  on  theological  subjects. 
In  1 511  Luther  made  a  sacred  pilgrimage  to  Rome  on  a 
mission  connected  with  the  monastery  at  Erfurt,  and  on 


326     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

his  return  he  became  sub-prior  of  the  monastery  at  Wit- 
tenberg. His  time  was  now  devoted  to  the  study  and  teach- 
ing of  the  scriptures  and  to  the  discussions  of  church  doc- 
trine. He  believed  that  evils  had  crept  into  the  church, 
and  he  wished  to  drive  out  this  wickedness  as  Pope  Sylves- 
ter had  tried  so  hard  to  do  many  years  before. 

A  few  years  later  he  issued  his  Ninety-Five  Theses  on 
Indulgence  and  posted  them,  as  was  the  custom,  on  the 
door  of  the  Castle  Church  at  Wittenberg.  When  these 
Theses  were  translated  into  German  and  spread  broadcast 
they  caused  much  discussion.  Luther  was  called  upon  to 
recant,  but  he  refused. 

The  Protestants.  —  Nothing  could  stop  the  spread  of 
Luther's  beliefs.  His  followers,  because  they  made  a  pro- 
test, were  called  Protestants.  They  sprang  up  all  over 
western  Europe.  Preachers  went  from  town  to  town  and 
from  country  to  country,  spreading  the  new  teachings. 
Germany,  England,  and  other  northern  countries  broke 
away  from  the  Catholic  Church  and  formed  new  religious 
sects,  for  the  Protestants  could  not  agree  among  themselves 
on  religious  questions.  Large  numbers  of  Protestants  were 
found  in  France  and  the  Netherlands.  But  there  was  one 
country,  above  all  others,  that  was  loyal  to  the  pope  and 
to  the  mother  church,  and  that  country  was  Spain. 

Purifying  the  Church.  —  Soon  after  the  Protestant 
nations  of  the  north  had  broken  away  from  the  mother 
church,  Europe  became  divided  into  two  hostile  camps, 
and  long  religious  wars  followed.  The  nobler  and  better 
people  among  the  Catholics  sought  to  purify  their  church, 
to  drive  out  selfishness  and  wickedness,  so  that  they  might 
face  their  enemies  with  a  clear' conscience  and  a  united  en- 
thusiasm. Thus  there  arose  in  the  Roman  church  several 
orders  whose  purpose  was  to  bring  back  the  purity,  the  noble 


RISE   OF   THE   PROTESTANTS  327 

devotion,  and  the  virtue  of  former  days.     The  most  im- 
portant of  these  was  the  "  Order  of  Jesus,"  or  the  Jesuits. 

The  Founder  of  the  Jesuits.  —  The  founder  of  this 
noble  order  was  Ignatius  Loyola,  a  Spanish  knight.  He  had 
been  crippled  in  battle  by  a  cannon  ball,  and  during  his 
long  illness,  he  read  the  lives  and  stories  of  the  saints. 
These  had  a  marvelous  influence  on  his  mind.  He  gave  up 
his  dreams  of  military  glory  and  dedicated  his  life  to  the 
church  of  Rome.  The  Jesuits  were  a  devoted  body  of 
noble  and  unselfish  men,  who  proved  a  great  aid  to  the 
Catholic  Church  in  this  trying  time  of  bitter  wars.  They 
denied  themselves  all  ties  of  home,  family,  and  friendship. 
Nothing  was  permitted  to  come  between  them  and  their 
service  for  the  church.  The  Jesuits  did  not  shut  themselves 
away  from  the  world  about  them  to  fast  and  pray  for  their 
own  souls,  as  did  the  early  monks,  but  they  gave  themselves 
in  glorious  service  to  their  fellow-men.  Nothing  was  too 
high  nor  too  low  for  their  noble  endeavors.  They  were 
preachers  and  confessors,  they  were  politicians,  they  were 
advisers  of  kings.  As  missionaries  the  Jesuits  endured  the 
hardships  of  a  lonely  life  in  the  far-off  corners  of  the  world 
in  order  to  teach  and  to  lead  the  savages  into  the  Christian 
faith.  One  of  the  greatest  services  to  their  time  was 
the  founding  of  the  Jesuit  schools,  which  were  the  best  in 
Europe.  But  above  all  the  Jesuits  helped  to  establish  a 
new  life  of  sanctity  and  learning  in  the  Catholic  Church. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  did  riches  weaken  the  church?  2.  Who  was  Pope  Syl- 
vester and  what  noble  thing  did  he  try  to  do  ?  3.  Why  was  desire  to 
learn  stronger  in  Italy  than  elsewhere  ?  4.  Tell  about  Petrarch's 
life.  5.  What  movements  did  he  set  going  ?  6.  How  was  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  Greeks  saved  ?     7.   Who  were  heretics  ?     8.   What  were 


328     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

Block  books?  9.  Tell  about  the  invention  of  the  printing  press. 
10.  Can  you  think  of  other  inventions  that  have  meant  more  to  the 
world?  11.  Give  reasons  for  your  beliefs.  12.  What  caused  the 
split  in  the  Catholic  Church?  13.  Who  led  in  this  movement? 
14.    Who  were  the  Jesuits  and  what  noble  work  did  they  do  ? 


CHAPTER  XXVII 


THE   REVOLT   OF   THE   NETHERLANDS 


Philip  Defends  the  Roman  Church. — The  crown  of  Spain 
fell,  in  1555,  to  Philip  II.  He  also  received  from  his  father 
the  Netherlands.  Now  Philip  was  a  zealous  Catholic.  He 
thought  it  was 
his  religious 
duty  to  burn 
every  heretic  in 
his  dominion  or 
to  force  them 
all  back  into 
the  Catholic 
Church,  and  he 
started  to  do  it. 
The  Spanish  had 
fought  many 
years  to  uphold 
the  faith  and  to 
expel  the  infidel 
Moors.  They 
were  in  no  mood 
to  allow  any  one 
to  criticize  or 
break  away  from 
the  faith  for  which  they  had  sacrificed  so  much  in  treasure 
and  in  blood. 

Stamping  Out  Heresy  in  the  Netherlands. — Philip  vowed 
he  would  stamp  out  all  Protestantism  from  his  domains, 

329 


Philip  II  of  Spain. 


330    DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

and  at  once  ordered  the  governor  of  the  Netherlands  to 
burn  or  kill  all  who  refused  to  accept  the  Catholic  form  of 
worship.  Many  great  nobles  and  hundreds  of  the  leading 
citizens  of  the  Netherlands  were  true  Catholics.  Never- 
theless they  objected  to  this  wholesale  hanging  and  burn- 
ing of  their  neighbors  because  of  religious  belief. 

Too  Much  Freedom.  —  Philip  saw  that  he  was  likely  to 
have  trouble  in  making  the  people  of  the  Netherlands  obey 
his  cruel  orders  against  the  Protestants.  The  towns  and 
provinces  of  that  country  had  long  had  charters  of  liberty, 
and  the  nobles  spoke  out  boldly  against  this  tyrannical 
order.  So  Philip  concluded  that  the  first  thing  to  do  was 
to  take  away  their  liberties. 

Would  Become  an  Absolute  Ruler.  —  He  planned  to 
capture  all  the  stout-hearted  patriots  and  liberty-loving 
nobles,  many  of  whom  were  loyal  Catholics,  and  upon  one 
excuse  or  another  to  put  them  to  death.  In  this  way  he 
hoped  to  frighten  all  the  common  people  and  force  them  to 
submit  to  his  absolute  rule.  After  that  it  would  be  easy 
to  root  out  Protestantism. 

The  Beggars.  —  One  of  the  king's  officers  in  the  Nether- 
lands called  the  Protestants  "  Beggars  " ;  and  they  gladly 
adopted  the  name,  crying,  "  Long  live  the  Beggars !  " 
One  of  their  leaders  soon  appeared  in  public  dressed  as  a 
beggar ;  and  from  this  time,  the  Netherland  Protestants 
wore  the  beggar's  costume  of  coarse,  gray  cloth,  with  a 
wallet  and  wooden  bowl  as  emblems  of  their  beggarhood. 

The  Beggars  Striking  Back.  —  On  several  occasions, 
mobs  of  Protestants  broke  into  Catholic  churches,  wrecked 
the  altars,  smashed  the  images  to  pieces,  and  destroyed  all 
objects  of  art  and  beauty  that  fell  in  their  way.  They  were 
just  as  ready  to  persecute  the  Catholics  in  their  turn ;  for 
at  this  time,  no  one  believed  that  more  than  one  religion 


THE  REVOLT  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS 


331 


could  exist  in  the  same  land.  Every  one  felt  that  his  belief 
was  the  only  right  religion,  and  that  it  was  his  duty  to  per- 
secute all  other  faiths. 

"It  shall  Cost  Them  Dear."  —When  the  king  heard  of 
these  outrages,  he  broke  out  in  anger,  "  It  shall  cost  them 
dear,  I  swear  it  by  the  soul  of  my  father."  He  now  sent  a 
new  governor,  the 
Duke  of  Alva,  with 
a  great  army  to 
carry  out  his 
wicked  designs  in 
the  Netherlands. 
The  Duke  of  Alva 
was  one  of  the 
greatest  generals 
of  Europe.  He 
was  stony-hearted 
and  merciless.  He 
believed,  with 
Philip,  that  all 
heretics  should  be 
put  to  death,  and 
was  glad  of  the 
chance  to  butcher 
the  Beggars. 

The  Duke  of  Alva's  Plot.  —  "I  have  tamed  men  of  iron 
in  my  day,"  said  Alva,  as  he  set  out ;  "I  shall  know  how  to 
deal  with  these  men  of  butter."  Everybody  who  stood  for 
the  liberties  of  his  land,  Catholic  or  Protestant,  Alva  was 
charged  to  put  to  death  upon  one  excuse  or  another.  Alva 
was  kindly  received  by  the  great  nobles  of  the  Netherlands  ; 
and  he  hid  his  wicked  intentions  beneath  many  smiles, 
while  he  contrived  a  plan  to  capture  all  the  leading  patriots 


Duke  of  Alva. 


332    DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

at  one  time.  He  arranged  a  brilliant  festival  in  the  most 
friendly  way,  and  invited  all  the  leaders  to  the  capital. 
Most  of  them  came.  His  officers  had  their  orders  to  arrest 
their  men  at  a  given  signal.  Thus  the  bravest  leaders 
of  the  Netherlands,  some  of  whom  had  fought  for  King 
Philip  on  many  battlefields,  were  taken  unawares  and 
landed  in  prison. 

The  Council  of  Blood.  — Alva  quickly  made  up  a  court  of 
heartless  men  to  try  these  nobles,  either  as  traitors  or  here- 
tics. He  called  this  new  body  the  Council  of  Troubles ;  but 
people  have  since  named  it  the  Council  of  Blood.  "  Whole 
batches  of  the  accused  were  condemned  together,  offhand ; 
and  from  one  end  of  the  Netherlands  to  the  other  the  exe- 
cutioners were  busy  with  stake,  sword,  and  gibbet  until 
the  whole  land  ran  red  with  blood." 

Hatred  for  the  Spaniard.  —  On  an  Ash  Wednesday,  when 
the  people  were  at  home,  fifteen  hundred  patriots  were  ar- 
rested; and  Alva  wrote  to  Philip,  saying, "  I  have  ordered 
them  all  executed."  Many  loyal  Catholics  objected  to  this 
wholesale  slaughter,  but  nothing  could  move  Philip  or  the 
blood-thirsty  Alva.  This  atrocious  burning  and  killing  of 
good  men  for  no  crime  but  a  love  of  liberty,  or  a  desire  to 
worship  as  they  believed  right,  aroused  undying  hatred 
against  the  Spaniards. 

William,  Prince  of  Orange.  —  Among  the  unhappy 
Netherlanders  was  a  patriot,  Prince  William  of  Orange, 
whom  Alva,  with  all  his  cunning,  could  not  catch,  although 
he  laid  many  traps.  He  invited  the  prince  to  feasts,  he 
offered  him  bribes,  he  hired  assassins  to  slay  him;  but 
William  of  Orange  was  a  wary  man,  and  the  cruel  Alva 
tried  in  vain  to  capture  him.  William  was  so  careful  in 
what  he  said,  that  people  began  to  call  him  William  the 
Silent. 


THE   REVOLT   OF   THE   NETHERLANDS  333 

William,  the  First  to  Believe  in  Religious  Freedom.  — 

Prince  William  was  the  leader  and  defender  of  his  people 

at  this  hopeless  time.     He  believed  that  no  man,  without 

an  exception,  had  a  right  to  punish  others  for  believing 

and  worshiping  as  they  pleased.     The  prince  encouraged  his 

people  to  fight ;    he  raised  money ;    he  raised  armies ;    he 

made  friends    in 

other    countries,    in 

France,      Germany, 

and    England,   who 

were  willing  to  send 

aid. 

Crushing  the 
Patriot  Armies.  — 
William  the  Silent 
was  a  tireless 
worker.  But  Alva, 
with  his  veteran 
Spanish  soldiers, 
scattered,  one  by 
one,  every  army  that 
the    patriots    could 

William  the  Silent. 

raise.    In  one  battle 

the  Spaniards  lost  but  seven,  while  their  opponents  lost 
seven  thousand  men.  The  Spanish  armies  crushed  all  be- 
fore them,  for  William  was  no  match  for  Alva  as  a  general. 
Stamping  Out  Teutonic  Liberty  not  Easy.  —  Still  the 
prince  would  not  own  himself  conquered.  After  a  bitter 
defeat,  he  said,  "  With  God's  help  I  am  determined  to  go 
on."  Again  armies  were  raised,  and  again  Alva  put  them 
to  rout.  He  wrote  Philip,  saying,  "  We  may  regard  the 
Prince  of  Orange  as  a  dead  man;  he  has  now  neither  in- 
fluence nor  credit." 


334    DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

Dark  Days  for  Liberty.  —  Alva's  armies  marched  up  and 
down  the  land,  capturing  most  of  the  towns,  and  putting 
many  of  the  people  to  death.  Everything  looked  dark 
to  the  Netherlanders.  Thousands  of  Protestants  fled  for 
refuge  to  France,  Germany,  and  England. 

The  Sea  Beggars.  —  The  brave  Hollanders  now  tried 
a  new  way  of  fighting.  They  began  to  build  ships,  and  soon 
had  eighteen  vessels  sailing  about  in  search  of  the  enemy. 
These  Dutch  vessels  were  manned  with  wild  and  lawless 
men,  who  hated  the  Spaniards  bitterly.  They  were  as 
cruel  as  Alva  himself.  The  crews  cared  nothing  for  dangers, 
as  long  as  there  was  plenty  of  fighting  and  rich  booty.  The 
Spaniards  called  them  Sea  Beggars. 

Philip's  Match  on  the  Sea.  —  In  a  year  they  had  taken 
three  hundred  Spanish  vessels  and  enormous  booty.  En- 
couraged by  this,  William  of  Orange  built  more  ships,  until 
the  number  had  reached  eighty-four.  The  crews  spread 
terror  everywhere,  but  little  of  the  booty  ever  reached 
Orange.  The  Sea  Beggars  sailed  up  and  down  the  coast, 
seeking  revenge  for  Alva's  cruel  deeds. 

The  Sea  Beggars'  First  Port.  —  Once  a  fleet  was  driven 
into  the  Meuse  River  by  a  storm.  Finding  the  Spanish 
garrison  of  Brill  off  their  guard,  six  hundred  Sea  Beggars 
marched  in  and  took  the  city,  pillaged  the  churches,  and 
murdered  the  Catholic  clergy  and  officials.  Then  they 
strengthened  the  walls,  ran  up  the  flag  of  Orange,  and  held 
the  town,  which  became  their  first  port. 

Dutch  at  Home  Upon  the  Sea.  —  From  this  small  begin- 
ing,  Holland  was  to  grow  into  a  great  sea  power.  Alva 
tried  again  and  again  to  retake  Brill,  but  in  vain.  One 
port  after  another  quickly  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Sea 
Beggars,  and  several  whole  provinces  were  retaken  by  them 
in  the  name  of  William  of  Orange. 


THE  REVOLT  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS     335 

Holland  Holding  Out.  —  Rich  merchants  now  opened 
their  purses  to  William ;  and  there  seemed  hope  of  saving 
the  northern  provinces  from  the  clutches  of  the  victorious 
Alva.  Prince  William  decided  to  give  up  the  southern 
provinces,  in  which  the  people  were  largely  Catholic,  and 
to  make  his  last  stand  for  the  low  countries  of  Holland, 
where  the  Protestants  were  numerous  and  ready  to  put  up 
the  stoutest  fight.  This  was  a  swampy  land  protected  by 
dikes. 

The  Fate  of  Holland.  —  One  of  William's  coast  towns 
was  Harlem.  Alva  resolved  to  take  this,  and  the  contest 
lasted  for  months  with  fighting  night  and  day.  Every  time 
the  Spaniards  made  an  attack  they  were  driven  back  with 
great  loss.  At  last  they  surrounded  the  town  and  sat  down 
to  starve  Harlem  into  surrender.  So  long  as  the  shallow 
waters  surrounding  the  town  were  covered  with  ice,  swift 
skaters  darted  in  during  the  dark,  foggy  nights  with  food. 
But  when  spring  came,  a  Spanish  fleet  cut  off  approach  by 
water.  The  starving  people  inside  the  town  had  eaten 
shoe  leather  and  even  weeds.  At  last  they  were  forced 
to  give  up.  The  blood-thirsty  Spaniards  rushed  in  and 
butchered  the  weak  and  helpless  survivors  by  the  hundred. 

Still  Defiant.  —  Philip  now  offered  pardon  to  the  stout- 
hearted Hollanders  if  they  would  lay  down  their  arms  and 
return  to  the  Catholic  faith.  But  they  bitterly  hated 
Philip,  the  man  who  had  hanged,  beheaded,  burned,  and 
buried  alive  their  innocent  brethren.  So  they  replied, 
"  As  long  as  there  is  a  living  man  left  in  the  country,  we 
will  fight  for  our  liberty  and  our  religion." 

Attempt  to  Take  Leyden.  —  Accordingly,  a  powerful 
Spanish  army  set  out  to  capture  Leyden,  a  city  not  many 
miles  from  the  sea.  They  were  beaten  off  by  the  brave 
defenders  and  again  sat  down  to  starve  them  out.     William 


336    DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

could  not  raise  an  army  big  enough  to  beat  back  the  Span- 
iards, but  he  urged  the  brave  Hollanders  to  hold  out  for 
three  months,  promising  that  he  would  save  them  from  the 
clutches  of  the  enemy. 

Facing  Starvation.  —  Weeks  passed  by,  and  food  became 
scarce  in  the  town.  They  wrote  Orange  that  they  had  kept 
their  promise,  they  "  had  held  out  two  months  with  food, 
and  another  month  without  food.     Their  malt  cake  would 


Dikes  of  Holland. 


last  but  four  days ;  and  after  that  was  gone  there  was 
nothing  left  but  starvation." 

The  Only  Hope.  —  Orange  had  but  one  resource  left. 
That  was  to  cut  the  dikes  and  send  the  ocean  waves  to 
fight  the  Spaniards.  The  people  hesitated  to  surrender  to 
the  sea  their  crops  and  lands  won  by  years  of  toil,  but  they 
at  last  agreed  with  Orange  when  he  said,  "  Better  a  drowned 
land  than  a  lost  land." 

Cutting  the  Dikes.  —  Orange,  therefore,  cut  the  great 
dikes  in  sixteen  places,  and  the  ocean  poured  through. 
The  Sea  Beggars  had  two  hundred  ships  of  light  draft, 
well-manned,  ready  to  sail  to  the  relief  of  Leyden,  but  the 


THE  REVOLT  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS     337 

sea  rose  very  slowly,  as  the  wind  was  in  the  wrong  direc- 
tion. The  fleet  had  approached  to  within  five  miles  of  the 
city  and  lay  there  waiting  for  the  water  to  rise. 

Starving  for  the  Sake  of  Liberty.  —  A  week  passed  and 
the  starving  citizens  began  to  lose  hope  and  to  complain 
bitterly.  Bread,  malt  cake,  and  horseflesh  were  all  gone. 
They  had  eaten  all  the  dogs,  cats,  and  rats.  A  few  cows 
were  left,  but  they  were  needed  for  the  milk.  Each  day 
some  were  killed,  and  small  bits  distributed  among  the 
starving  people.  The  cowhides  were  chopped,  boiled,  and 
eaten  eagerly.  The  green  leaves  were  stripped  from  the 
trees  for  food.  Men,  wo'men,  and  children  were  dying  in 
great  numbers,  for  a  pestilence  had  come  upon  the  unhappy 
city. 

Supreme  Heroism.  —  The  Spaniards  taunted  the  brave 
people  on  the  walls,  but  the  plucky  Hollanders  shouted 
back :  "  Ye  call  us  rat  eaters  and  dog  eaters,  and  it  is  true. 
So  long,  then,  as  ye  hear  dog  bark  or  cat  mew,  ye  may  know 
that  the  city  holds  out.  And  when  all  have  perished  but 
ourselves,  be  sure  that  we  will  each  devour  our  left  arms, 
retaining  our  right  to  defend  our  women,  our  liberty,  and 
our  religion  against  the  bloodthirsty  Spaniard." 

The  Unconquerable  Van  der  Werf .  —  Some  hopeless 
wretches  gathered  about  the  brave  burgomaster  Van  der 
Werf,  the  commander  of  the  town,  and  accused  him  of 
preferring  to  starve  them  rather  than  give  up  to  the 
Spaniards.  That  hero  replied :  "  Here  is  my  sword,  plunge 
it  into  my  breast  and  divide  my  flesh  among  you  to  appease 
your  hunger;  but  expect  no  surrender  so  long  as  I  shall 
remain  alive."  This  shamed  the  faint-hearted  citizens  to 
obedience,  and  there  was  no  more  flinching. 

The  Wind  Changes.  —  Presently  the  wind  changed  and 
drove  the  sea  waters  over  the  land.     The  Dutch  fleet  with 


338    DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

their  beloved  prince  aboard  sailed  in  among  trees  and  farm 
buildings,  defeated  the  Spaniards,  and  brought  food  to  the 
suffering  people  of  Leyden.  Every  man,  who  could  stand, 
came  out  to  meet  the  fleet,  and  bread  was  thrown  from  every 
vessel  into  the  crowd.  Some  ate  so  eagerly  that  they 
choked  to  death.  They  gathered  in  their  church  where 
they  sang,  prayed,  and  wept  like  children. 

Leyden  Rewarded  by  a  University.  —  When  William 
listened  to  the  story  of  their  glorious  defense,  he  rejoiced 
exceedingly.  Wishing  to  reward  the  heroic  defenders  of 
liberty,  the  prince  offered  to  release  the  city  from  all  taxes. 
But  the  Dutch  were  as  wise  as  they  were  plucky.  They 
said,  "  We  prefer  a  university."  Sometime  later  the 
prince  founded  the  great  University  of  Leyden  in  honor  of 
this  victory.  In  the  course  of  time  this  became  famous  and 
drew  scholars  from  all  civilized  lands  to  enjoy  its  advan- 
tages. 

Philip  Hiring  Assassins.  —  King  Philip  was  now  con- 
vinced that  he  could  never  conquer  Holland  as  long  as  the 
wonderful  patriot  William  was  alive;  so  he  proclaimed 
him  to  all  the  world  as  a  traitor,  and  offered  twenty-five 
thousand  crowns  of  gold  to  any  one  "who  shall  deliver  this 
pest  to  us,  dead  or  alive ;  or  take  his  life."  An  assassin 
got  access  to  William's  house  and  shot  him  as  he  went  to 
dinner.  The  villain  fell,  pierced  by  many  arrows,  while 
William  recovered. 

The  Great  Patriot  Falls.  —  But  another  ruffian  with 
murder  in  his  heart  secured  permission  to  enter  the  house. 
He  was  in  a  wretched  condition,  so  William  sent  him  a 
present  of  twelve  crowns.  With  this  gift  the  scoundrel 
bought  a  pistol,  watched  his  chance,  and  shot  William  dead. 
All  Holland  mourned  the  death  of  their  noble  chief,  and 
they  buried  him  with  great  honors. 


THE   REVOLT   OF  THE  NETHERLANDS  339 

A  New  Enemy  of  Spain.  —  William  the  Silent  had  done 
his  work  so  well  that  the  Dutch  Republic,  which  he  had 
founded,  could  not  be  overcome  by  Spain.  Elizabeth, 
the  Protestant  queen  of  England,  now  offered  aid  to  the 
brave  little  country  of  Holland.  Philip,  in  anger,  turned 
to  conquer  England  ;  after  which  he  believed  he  could  finish 
the  destruction  of  liberty  in  Holland. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  country  was  the  most  loyal  to  the  mother  church? 
2.  Why  ?  3.  Where  did  Philip  of  Spain  get  the  kingship  of  Holland  ? 
4.  How  did  he  try  to  stamp  out  the  Protestant  sects  there  ?  5.  Who 
were  the  Beggars  ?  6.  Who  was  Alva  and  what  kind  of  a  fighter  was 
he  ?  7.  Was  he  as  good  a  man  as  he  was  a  general  ?  8.  Tell  about 
his  plot.  9.  What  was  the  Council  of  Blood?  10.  Who  was  the 
great  patriot  of  Holland  ?  11.  Compare  him  with  Alva  as  a  fighter 
and  as  a  man.  12.  Tell  about  the  Sea  Beggars  and  what  they  did 
for  Holland.  13.  Tell  about  the  fate  of  Harlem.  14.  How 
wasLeyden  saved?  15.  What  became  of  William  of  Orange? 
16.  What  new  enemy  now  arose  against  Spain  ?  0 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
THE   FALL   OF   SPAIN 

English  Sea  Rovers.  —  Among  the  English  sea  captains 
of  those  days  were  many  bold  and  daring  leaders.  The 
sea  swarmed  with  pirates,  and  even  kings  were  willing  to 
share  the  stolen  plunder.  Queen  Elizabeth  was  eager  to 
aid  these  sea  dogs  in  taking  trading  vessels  from  the  East 
Indies  or  Spanish  treasure  ships  bearing  cargoes  of  riches 
from  the  gold  and  silver  mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru. 

Sir  Francis  Drake.  —  In  1585  Drake  led  a  fleet  of  thirty 
vessels  against  the  Spanish  colonies.  Other  famous 
captains,  Martin  Frobisher  and  Richard,  the  son  of  John 
Hawkins,  went  with  him.  Their  names  were  known  and 
feared  on  erery  sea.  They  went  about  capturing  and 
plundering,  destroying  what  they  could  not  carry  away. 
Steering  for  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America,  they  seized 
scores  of  ships  and  burned  ihany  towns  —  among  them  St. 
Augustine  with  its  two  hundred  and  fifty  houses.  The 
next  year  they  returned  to  England  with  immense  booty, 
including  vast  sums  of  gold  and  silver.  Such  lawless  deeds 
aroused  Philip  to  the  righting  point. 

Why  Philip  Hated  England.  —  Philip  had  more  reasons 
than  one  for  making  war  upon  England.  He  hated  the 
island  kingdom  because  she  had  broken  away  from  the 
Catholic  Church,  as  well  as  because  Drake  and  other 
English  sea  rovers  had  captured  so  many  Spanish  treasure 
ships  from  America  and  the  Indies.  And,  above  all,  Philip 
was  furious  because  Queen  Elizabeth  had  sent  soldiers  and 

340 


THE   FALL   OF   SPAIN 


341 


guns  to  help  the  Protestants  of  Holland  against  the  Span- 
iards. 

His  Plans.  —  Philip  vowed  that  he  would  conquer  the 
island  of  heretics,  throw  Elizabeth  into  prison,  and  make 
himself  king  in  her  place.  Then  he  would  restore  the 
Catholic  religion,  both  in  England  and  Holland. 

The  Great  Armada.  —  Philip  now  resolved  to  gather  all 
his  troops  and  ships,  and  in  one  great  Armada  bear  down 


Queen  Elizabeth. 

upon  England  in  overwhelming  numbers.  He  counted  his 
forces  and  found  that  he  could  get  together  150  great  ships 
Qf  war  _  36o  smaller  vessels  and  storeships,  and  46  galleys 
—  a  total  of  556  ships.  This  grand  fleet,  which  he  called 
"  The  Invincible  Armada,"  would  land  his  world-famous 
army  of  94,000  men  on  the  English  coast  and  the  war  would 
soon  be  over. 


342     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

"  Singeing  the  Spanish  King's  Beard."  —  But  before  the 
Armada  was  ready  to  sail,  Drake  was  sent  to  prevent 
the  fleets  of  Spain  from  joining  forces.  He  sailed  boldly 
into  the  Spanish  harbor  of  Cadiz,  sank  forty  or  more  ships 
of  war,  burned  the  shipyards  and  all  seasoned  lumber,  and 
sailed  away,  towing  four  storeships  well-filled  with  pro- 
visions. They  called  this  "  singeing  the  Spanish  king's 
beard."  After  destroying  scores  of  Spanish  merchant  ships, 
Drake  sailed  toward  the  Azores  to  await  a  Spanish  trading 
fleet,  which  he  heard  was  coming  from  the  East  Indies. 
He  fell  in  with  it  and  won  an  easy  victory.  Then  he  spread 
his  sails  for  home,  carrying  booty  of  enormous  value. 

The  Armada  Sails.  — -  Drake  had  done  such  damage  to 
the  Spaniards  that  they  were  forced  to  postpone  the  time 
of  setting  sail.  It  was  not  until  1588  that  the  Armada  was 
ready  to  put  out  to  sea.  Philip  had  launched  a  fleet  of 
130  ships,  carrying  8000  sailors  and  14,000  soldiers.  His 
ships  were  large,  strong,  and  imposing ;  and  they  out- 
numbered Elizabeth's  fleet  four  to  one.  Moreover,  Spain 
had  long  been  the  strongest  nation  in  the  world.  Her 
generals  were  famous  and  her  soldiers  seasoned  by  years 
of  service  and  many  victories. 

The  Armada  in  Trouble.  —  Philip  ordered  the  Armada 
to  sail  first  to  Holland,  taking  on  board  the  great  Spanish 
armies  there,  and  then  to  land  them  across  the  channel  on 
English  soil.  No  sooner  had  the  Armada  put  out  to  sea 
than  its  troubles  began.  The  great  ships  were  built  for 
fair  weather  and  were  made  of  poorly  seasoned  timber,  for 
Drake  had  burned  up  their  good  lumber.  So  the  vessels 
soon  began  to  leak  badly.  The  sailors  were  gathered  largely 
from  Mediterranean  ships,  and  were  not  used  to  the  stormy 
Atlantic.  Their  food  was  poor  and  most  of  it  soon  spoiled  ; 
their  bread  became  moldy  and  their  meat  putrid.     Their 


THE   FALL  OF   SPAIN 


343 


supply  of  water  also  ran  short,  and  sickness  soon  broke  out 
upon  the  crowded  fleet. 

The  English  Fleet.  —  At  last  the  Armada  was  sighted 
off  the  coast  of  England,  where  the  little  fleet  of  Elizabeth 
was  awaiting  them.  The  English  fleet  was  small,  but  much 
faster  then  the  big  ships  of  Spain.  It  was  commanded  by 
Lord  Howard,  a  noted  sea  captain;  and  with  him  were 
Drake,  Hawkins,  Frobisher,  and  many  other  daring  cap- 


The  Meeting  of  the  English  Ships  with  the  Spanish  Armada. 

tains.  The  ships  were  manned  by  sailors  trained  in  many 
sea  battles.  The  English  fleet  was  supplied  with  long- 
range  cannon  and  good  gunners ;  while  the  Armada  was 
crowded  with  soldiers  whose  only  method  of  fighting  was  at 
close  range.  The  big  English  guns  fired  four  shots  to  the 
Spaniards'  one. 

A  Running  Fight.  —  The  fleets  came  together,  and  the 
little  English  ships  darted  in  and  out  among  the  huge, 
awkward  ships  of  Spain.  They  shot  holes  in  Philip's 
big  vessels,  and  captured  the  slower-sailing  ones  as  well  as 
those  that  were  disabled  and  had  to  fall  behind.     The 


344     DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

Spanish  admiral,  being  unable  to  grapple  or  to  approach 
close  enough  to  harm  the  English  vessels,  drew  off  and 
anchored  in  a  harbor  on  the  east  side  of  the  channel.  The 
English  ships  followed,  but  dared  not  enter  the  port.  They 
collected  some  big  fire  ships,  and  under  a  favorable  breeze 
sent  them  blazing  into  the  harbor  among  the  scores  of 


The  Sovereign  of  the  Seas. 


Philip's  wooden  vessels.  The  Spaniards,  in  great  alarm, 
cut  their  cables  and  amidst  much  confusion  tried  to  escape 
to  the  open  sea.  Many  ships  collided  and  were  damaged, 
some  were  burned,  and  the  entire  Armada  floated  out  at 
night.  The  ships  became  scattered,  without  an  admiral  to 
give  orders.  The  nimble  English  vessels  followed  in  close 
pursuit.  In  that  running,  nine  days'  fight  up  the  channel, 
the  Spaniards  saw  that  fortune  was  against  them.  They 
cried  out  in  despair,  "  God  has  forsaken  us !  " 


THE   FALL  OF   SPAIN  345 

The  English  Have  the  Best  of  It.  —  Many  of  Philip's 
ships  were  sent  to  the  bottom,  some  were  driven  ashore, 
and  some  were  captured,  as  the  English  chased  their  big 
enemy  into  the  stormy  North  Sea.  The  splendid  Armada 
was  badly  scattered,  and  to  escape  the  English,  they  fled 
to  the  northward.  The  British  fleet  had  run  short  of  pow- 
der and  had  to  stop  to  restock  the  ships.  Howard  wrote  to 
Queen  Elizabeth,  saying,  "  Their  force  is  wonderful  and 
strong,  and  yet  we  pluck  their  feathers  little  by  little." 

Returning  Home.  —  The  defeated  Armada  tried  to  sail 
around  Scotland  and  Ireland  and  thus  return  to  Spain,  for 
they  dreaded  another  meeting  with  Lord  Howard's  fleet, 
which  was  waiting  for  them  to  come  back.  The  scattered 
fleet  of  Spain  had  neither  pilots  nor  sea  charts.  Their  ships 
were  full  of  leaks  and  holes  made  by  the  English  guns,  and 
the  weather  was  wild  and  stormy.  Many  of  Philip's  ships 
were  wrecked  off  the  coast  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and 
their  men  and  cargo  were  scattered  along  the  shores.  The 
Spanish  soldiers  and  sailors  died  in  great  numbers  of  wounds, 
sickness,  cold,  and  famine. 

Philip  in  Defeat.  —  Only  a  small  part  of  the  fleet  ever 
reached  home.  Spain  was  ruined.  Philip  had  taxed  the 
land  to  the  uttermost  to  fit  out  the  wonderful  Armada,  and 
now  despair  and  rage  rang  through  the  country.  For  days, 
Philip  was  found  at  prayer:  "  It  is  Thy  cause,  O  Lord.  If 
in  Thy  wisdom  defeat  is  best,  then  Thy  will  be  done!  " 

Holland  Takes  Spain's  Place.  —  Even  after  the  defeat  of 
the  Armada,  Spain  kept  up  her  fight  against  Holland  until 
Philip's  death ;  but  it  was  a  losing  fight.  During  thirty 
years  of  continuous  fighting,  brave  little  Holland  had  held 
her  own  with  the  strongest  nation  of  Europe;  and  her 
provinces  had  become  the  chief  trading  country  of  the 
world.     The  southern  provinces,  now  known  as  Belgium, 


346     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

had  been  brought  to  their  knees  by  the  great  Spanish  armies, 
but  many  of  the  leading  citizens  of  Antwerp,  Bruges,  and 
Ghent  had  gone  to  Holland  and  helped  to  build  up  the  great 
commerce  of  that  country. 

Holland  Free;  Protestantism  Spared.  —  The  people 
of  Holland  were,  above  all  else,  a  sea-faring  nation,  and 
their  trade  grew  marvelously.  Their  ships  were  on  every 
sea.  The  Mediterranean,  the  White  Sea,  the  East  Indies, 
China,  and  the  Amazon  knew  their  trading  vessels.  When 
the  fighting  was  ended  in  1609,  Holland  was  practically  a 
free  country,  for  Spain  never  renewed  the  attack.  The 
Protestant  religion  was  saved. 

The  Moriscoes.  —  When  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  drove 
out  the  Moors  from  Spain,  a  considerable  number  of  them, 
who  had  accepted  Christianity,  were  permitted  to  remain 
in  the  country.  These  Moriscoes  were  the  most  skillful 
laborers  of  Spain.  While  the  Spaniards  had  come  to  despise 
honest  labor  and  to  look  upon  war  as  the  only  honorable 
occupation,  the  Moriscoes  were  busy  manufacturing  silk 
and  paper,  cultivating  sugar,  rice,  and  cotton,  and  raising 
sheep.  The  riches  of  Spain  in  those  days  came  from  two 
sources:  from  the  labor  of  the  Moriscoes,  and  from  the  mines 
of  America. 

The  Utter  Ruin  of  Spain.  —  The  defeat  of  the  Armada  was 
a  deathblow  to  Spanish  leadership,  but  Philip's  son  has- 
tened the  ruin  of  his  kingdom  by  another  stupendous 
blunder.  The  Spaniards  had  always  been  suspicious  of 
the  Moriscoes'  faith,  and  powerful  leaders  of  the  Roman 
church  in  Spain  now  resolved  to  drive  them  from  the 
country.  Thus  a  million  of  the  best  workers  and  thinkers 
of  Spain  were  exiled  amid  untold  suffering  and  cruelty. 
The  nation  has  never  recovered  from  this  severe  blow. 
Madrid  and  Seville  lost  half  of  their  population.     The  mines 


THE   FALL   OF   SPAIN  347 

of  America  were  soon  exhausted,  and  Spain  was  now  fallen 
very  low.  Instead  of  being  the  leading  world  power,  she 
had  become  a  land  of  beggars.  Her  control  of  the  sea,  her 
world-wide  commerce,  her  vast  possessions  gradually  fell 
into  other  hands. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  three  reasons  why  Philip  made  war  on  England.  2.  What 
preparations  did  he  make  ?  3.  How  was  he  hindered  ?  4.  How  did 
he  plan  for  his  men  to  go  to  England  ?  5.  What  hardships  did  they 
suffer?  6.  How  was  the  whole  plan  spoiled?  7.  What  did  it 
mean  to  Spain  ?     8.   What  did  it  mean  to  England  ? 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

THE   FRENCH   IN   AMERICA 

Dividing  the  World.  —  For  almost  fifty  years  after  the 
voyages  of  Columbus  the  French  nation  took  little  interest 
in  exploration,  and  during  this  time  Spain  and  Portugal 
seized  the  newly  found  lands  and  the  world's  trade.  Portu- 
gal had  taken  possession  of  the  route  to  the  East  by  way 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  while  Spain  claimed  all  lands 
discovered  to  the  west  and  southwest.  In  order  to  prevent 
trouble  between  Portugal  and  Spain,  the  pope  had  divided 
between  these  powers  all  the  new  lands  that  might  be  dis- 
covered. A  line  was  drawn  across  the  map  from  pole  to 
pole,  two  hundred  and  seventy  leagues  west  of  the  Cape 
Verde  Islands.  All  new  lands  discovered  east  of  this  line 
were  to  belong  to  Portugal ;    those  west  of  it  to  Spain. 

France  Wants  a  Share. — The  king  of  France  saw  no 
good  reason  for  allowing  Spain  and  Portugal  to  divide  the 
world  between  them.  He  began  to  wish  for  a  share  of  these 
newly  found  lands,  where  mines  of  gold  and  silver,  like 
those  that  the  Spaniards  had  found  in  South  America  and 
Mexico,  might  be  discovered.  Moreover,  no  one  had  yet 
found  a  short  route  to  China.  Perhaps  there  might  be  a 
northwest  passage ;  and,  if  such  were  true,  it  would  bring 
riches  to  whatever  nation  first  took  possession  of  it. 

Cartier.  —  In  1534,  a  Frenchman,  named  Jacques  Cartier, 
started  in  search  of  a  northwest  route  to  China.  He  steered 
for  Newfoundland,  which  was  then  pretty  well  known  in 
France  through  the  hardy  French  fishermen  who  had  made 

348 


THE   FRENCH  IN   AMERICA 


349 


many  voyages  to  these  waters  for  codfish.  After  reaching 
America  and  exploring  many  bays  and  islands,  Cartier  at 
last  entered  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  which  seemed  to 
promise  a  passage  to  the  western  ocean.  But  as  autumn, 
with  its  stormy  weather, 
was  approaching,  Car- 
tier  resolved  to  go  home 
and  return  the  next  year. 
So  he  turned  his  prows 
eastward  and  bore  away 
for  France,  carrying 
with  him  two  Indians 
whom  he  had  kid- 
napped. 

A  Second  Trip.  — The 
next  year,  Cartier  with 
three  ships  spread  sail 
for  Newfoundland,  and 
on  St.  Lawrence's  day 
entered  the  bay,  which 
he  named  St.  Lawrence, 
the  long-sought  passage. 


Cartier. 


He  fondly  hoped  that  this  was 
But  the  farther  up  he  sailed  the 
narrower  he  found  the  bay  and  the  fresher  the  water,  until 
he  knew  that  it  was  only  a  great  river. 

Montreal.  —  Sailing  up  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  he  passed 
by  the  rocky  height  where  Quebec  now  stands,  and  came 
to  an  Indian  village  on  the  present  site  of  Montreal.  Be- 
hind the  village  was  a  hill,  high  enough  to  give  Cartier  a 
splendid  view  of  the  surrounding  country.  He  called  the 
hill  Mont  Real,  or  the  Royal  Mountain. 

A  Hard  Winter.  —  Winter  came  on  with  its  extreme 
cold  —  a  real  Canadian  winter.  The  shores  and  the  great 
river  were  frozen   solid   and   covered   with   snow,   which 


350     DAWN   OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

drifted  high  about  the  ice-bound  ships  and  the  fort  that  the 
French  had  built.  The  Indians  were  friendly  for  a  time, 
but  the  scurvy  broke  out  among  Cartier's  men  and  many 
died.  Sometimes,  it  is  said,  only  three  or  four  were  well 
enough  to  care  for  the  sick.  Being  unable  to  bury  their 
dead  on  account  of  the  frozen  ground,  they  hid  them  in 
snowdrifts.  They  feared  that  the  Indians  might  hear  of 
their  plight  and  massacre  those  that  the  scurvy  had  spared, 
so  they  refused  them  the  privilege  of  approaching  the  fort. 

The  Indian's  Cure.  —  One  day  Cartier  saw  an  Indian  who 
had  just  recovered  from  the  scurvy.  He  inquired  what 
medicine  he  had  used.  The  Indian  told  him  of  a  drink 
made  from  evergreen  leaves.  The  Frenchmen  drank  it 
eagerly  and  were  soon  on  the  road  to  health. 

Headed  for  France.  —  When  spring  came  and  the  ships 
were  thawed  loose  from  their  moorings,  Cartier  made  ready 
to  return  to  France.  By  shameless  treachery  he  seized  a 
chief  and  eleven  Indians  who  seemed  to  know  most  of  the 
country  farther  inland  and  spread  his  sails  for  home. 

Canada  for  France.  —  Cartier  came  a  third  time.  He 
spent  some  weeks  exploring,  but  went  home  after  planting 
the  French  flag  in  Canada  and  taking  possession  of  New 
France,  as  he  called  it.  It  has  been  said  that  the  only  ad- 
vantages the  country  offered  were  a  "  bitter  climate,  a 
savage  people,  a  fatal  disease,  and  a  soil  barren  of  gold." 

Profits  in  Fur  Trade.  —  The  French  fishermen,  who  had, 
for  many  summers,  visited  the  banks  of  Newfoundland 
for  codfish,  soon  saw  greater  riches  in  fur  trade  with  the 
Indians.  Many  of  them  cast  away  their  nets  and  journeyed 
through  the  deep  forests  in  quest  of  the  more  profitable 
bear  skins  and  beaver  skins. 

The  First  Settlement.  —  It  was  many  years  later,  how- 
ever, before   the  French   undertook   to   make  permanent 


THE   FRENCH   IN   AMERICA 


351 


settlements  in  Canada.  The  fur  trade  had  grown  and 
become  valuable.  At  last  came  one  of  the  greatest  and 
noblest  Frenchmen  of  those  times 
—  Samuel  de  Champlain,  who  in 
1608  made  a  settlement  at  Quebec, 
and  became  the  founder  of  Canada. 
Champlain 's  Plans. —  Champlain 
wished  to  carve  out  a  grand  empire 
in  America  for  the  French  king. 
His  plan  was  to  explore  the  coun- 
try and  to  make  friends  with  the 
Indians  —  all  the  while  building  up 
a  profitable  trade  with  them.  At 
the  same  time  missionaries  were  to 

teach  the  red  men  and  to  lead  them  into  the  Catholic  faith. 
Thus  the  fur  trader  and  the  black-robed  Jesuit  priest  set 
out  through  the  forests  together.      It  was  also  part  of 


Quebec  in  the  Early  Days. 

Champlain's  plan   to   establish  strong  military  posts,  or 
forts,  at  well-chosen  places. 

Champlain  and  the  Iroquois.  —  In  order  to  cement  a  firm 
friendship  with  the  Algonquin  Indians  of  the  St.  Lawrence 


352     DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

valley,  Champlain  agreed  to  help  them  in  a  war  with  their 
bitter  enemies,  the  Iroquois.  Near  the  banks  of  the  beauti- 
ful lake  that  bears  his  name,  Champlain  led  his  Indian 
friends  in  a  battle  against  the  Iroquois.  The  crack  of  the 
muskets  as  the  French  sharpshooters  picked  off  their  chiefs, 
frightened  the  Iroquois  warriors.  Being  afraid  to  fight 
against  men  who  used  thunder  and  lightning,  they  fled  to- 
ward home.  This  battle  established  a  firm  friendship  with 
the  Algonquins,  but  it  made  the  Iroquois,  who  were  the 
strongest  Indian  confederacy  in  America,  the  everlasting 
enemies  of  the  French.  In  after  years  they  did  great  harm 
to  the  followers  of  Champlain,  by  cutting  off  their  fur  trade 
or  by  surprising  and  capturing  their  forts.  The  Iroquois, 
by  preventing  the  French  from  pushing  south  into  their 
country  —  now  the  state  of  New  York  —  forced  them  west- 
ward into  the  Great  Lake  region. 

La  Salle's  Gift  to  France.  —  Following  in  the  footsteps 
of  the  founder  of  Canada,  came  the  man  of  the  iron  will, 
Cavelier  de  La  Salle,  who  was  to  extend  and  complete  the 
work  begun  by  Champlain.  La  Salle,  with  his  wonderful 
determination,  explored  the  region  of  the  western  lakes 
and  the  great  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  and  planted  there 
the  French  flag.  Thus  he  gave  to  his  king  a  vast  empire 
stretching  westward  from  the  crest  of  the  Alleghanies  to  the 
unknown  Rockies. 

Making  Friends  of  the  Indians.  —  One  of  the  chief  rea- 
sons for  the  success  of  the  French  was  their  ability  to  win 
and  to  hold  the  good  will  of  the  Indians.  No  other  Eu- 
ropeans knew  so  well  how  to  make  firm  allies  of  the  red  men. 
The  French  traders  and  trappers  learned  the  Indian  lan- 
guage ;  they  dressed  like  Indians,  often  painting  their  faces 
and  joining  in  their  war  dances.  Some  took  Indian  wives 
and  came  at  last  to  live  much  as  did  these  children  of  the 


THE   FRENCH  IN   AMERICA 


353 


2A 


354    DAWN  OF   AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 


French  Explorations. 


THE   FRENCH   IN  AMERICA  355 

forest.     They  made  long  voyages  in  canoes  and  learned  to 
endure  the  adventure  and  hardship  of  savage  life. 

Weakness  of  the  French.  —  But  while  the  French  had 
won  the  friendship  of  many  Indian  tribes,  and  had  taken 
possession  of  such  a  large  territory  in  the  fairest  portion  of 
North  America,  they  had  made  but  few  settlements. 
Their  chief  object  being  the  fur  trade  instead  of  a  desire  to 
settle  and  till  the  soil,  they  had  spread  themselves  out  thinly 
over  wide  regions.  Being  so  scattered,  they  were  widely 
exposed  to  attack,  when  the  English  crossed  swords  with 
them  some  years  later. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  had  aroused  French  interest  in  America?  2.  What  men 
explored  for  her?  3.  What  territory  did  they  claim?  4.  Settle- 
ments? 5.  How  did  they  try  to  hold  their  territory?  6.  What 
were  their  relations  with  the  Indians?  7.  What  where  their  in- 
dustries? 8.  What  was  their  religion?  9.  How  did  their  govern- 
ment differ  from  that  in  the  English  colonies?  10.  Which  country 
has  the  strongest  hold  in  America?  11.  Why?  12.  From  the 
standpoint  of  progress,  which  nation  would  make  the  most  of  America? 
13.   Why? 


CHAPTER  XXX 

THE   DUTCH   AT   NEW   AMSTERDAM 

Seizing  the  World's  Trade. —After  the  defeat  of  the 
Armada,  England  and  Holland  soon  became  the  leading 
powers  upon  the  sea.  The  Dutch  ships  spread  their  sails 
for  the  East  Indies,  and  before  many  years  they  had  seized 
upon  Java,  Sumatra,  the  Molucca  Islands,  and  other  valu- 
able possessions  of  Portugal  and  Spain.  All  this  rich  trade 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Holland.  It  was  the  Dutch  who 
introduced  into  Europe  the  use  of  coffee  and  tea.  They 
established  a  colony  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  they  dis- 
covered the  far-off  continent  of  Australia  in  1605  and  named 
it  New  Holland,  a  name  that  it  bore  for  a  long  time.  Tas- 
mania and  New  Zealand  were  visited,  and  the  Dutch  flag 
was  seen  on  every  sea. 

A  Northeast  Route  to  China.  —  The  Dutch  merchants 
were  especially  anxious  to  find  a  shorter  route  to  China 
and  Japan,  since  it  took  many  months  for  their  slow-sailing 
vessels  to  creep  around  Africa  to  those  distant  ports. 
Some  people  hoped  that  there  might  be  found  a  northeast 
passage  around  the  northern  coast  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
The  Dutch  East  Indian  Company  sent  Henry  Hudson,  a 
noted  English  navigator,  to  find  it  for  them. 

Henry  Hudson.  —  Hudson  spread  sail  for  the  frozen 
north.  He  met  with  so  many  icebergs  that  he  feared  that 
his  ship  might  be  caught  and  crushed,  so  he  gave  up  the 
attempt.  Instead  of  returning  home,  as  he  was  ordered 
to  do  in  case  he  failed,  Hudson  turned  his  prows  for  the 

356 


THE   DUTCH   AT   NEW   AMSTERDAM 


357 


west  and  crossed  the  Atlantic  in  search  of  a  northwest 

route  to  China.     He  sailed  down  along  the  coast  of  New 

England,  and  in  September,  1609,  the  Half  Moon  entered 

the  beautiful  river  that  bears  his  name.     He  sailed  up  the 

Hudson    as    far 

as  the  present 

site   of  Albany, 

trading  with  the 

Indians     and 

admiring  the 

scenery  of  the 

country.      He 

declared  that  it 

was  "  as  fair  a 

land  as  was  ever 

trodden  by  the 

foot  of  man." 

New  Amster- 
dam Settled.  — 
During  the  next 
few  years,  other 
Dutch  vessels 
came  to  the 
Hudson,  bring- 
ing blue  glass 
beads  and  strips 
of  red  cotton 
cloth  to  exchange  for  the  valuable  skins  of  beaver,  otter, 
and  mink.  By  1613  the  Dutch  had  built  four  rude  huts  on 
Manhattan  Island,  where  the  great  city  of  New  York  now 
stands.  It  mattered  not  to  the  thrifty  Dutch  merchants 
that  they  were  settling  upon  land  claimed  by  England. 
They  named  the  cluster  of  huts  New  Amsterdam;   they 


The  Half  Moon  on  the  Hudson. 


358    DAWN  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

built  forts  to  protect  their  new  country ;  and  they  made  a 
treaty  of  friendship  with  the  Iroquois,  who  were  glad  of 
the  chance  to  buy  muskets  with  which  to  take  vengeance 
upon  the  French  for  the  defeat  at  Lake  Champlain  a  few 
years  before.  Thus  the  Dutch  had  seized  upon  the  finest 
harbor  on  the  eastern    coast  and   the   gateway  into   the 


The  Dutch  in  New  Amsterdam. 

interior,  since  the  Hudson  furnished  an  easy  passage  for 
inland  traffic  in  furs. 

Helping  to  Build  Our  Nation.  —  The  Dutch  were  close 
kin  of  the  Angles  and  Saxons  and  were,  perhaps,  the  purest 
Teutonic  stock  among  the  early  settlers  of  America.  The 
Dutch  were  industrious  and  thrifty.  They  were  shrewd 
in  money  matters  and  skilled  in  driving  bargains.  Their 
city  quickly  took  the  lead  in  trade  and  wealth  in  America, 
and  it  has  held  the  first  place  to  this  day.  They  brought 
to  America  that  love  of  liberty  and  freedom  of  worship 


THE  DUTCH  AT  NEW  AMSTERDAM  359 

that  they  had  gained  in  Holland.  Thousands  of  this  sturdy 
people  came  early  to  our  shores,  and  they  have  helped 
greatly  in  making  our  country  what  it  is  to-day. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  becomes  of  Spam's  possessions  in  the  East  after  the  de- 
feat of  the  Armada?  2.  What  new  routes  to  the  East  did  Holland 
explore?  3.  What  was  the  result?  4.  Tell  about  Hudson's 
voyage.  5.  Tell  about  New  Amsterdam.  6.  What  ideas  of  govern- 
ment and  religion  did  the  Dutch  bring  to  New  Amsterdam  ?  7-  How 
did  the  Dutch  differ  from  the  English  in  these  matters  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
THE   ENGLISH   SETTLEMENT   OF   AMERICA 

Frobisher  and  the  Short-cut  to  China.  —  So  anxious  were 
the  nations  of  Europe  to  find  a  short  route  to  China  that 
English  sailors  also  entered  into  the  search.  Among  those 
who  set  out  to  find  a  northwest  passage  through  North 
America  was  Martin  Frobisher.  The  man  who  found 
this  short-cut,  Frobisher  thought,  would  become  both  rich 
and  famous,  for  he  believed  it  was  the  only  great  thing  in 
the  world  left  to  do. 

His  Voyage.  —  Frobisher  was  too  poor  to  fit  out  an  expe- 
dition himself,  and  it  was  a  long  time  before  he  could  find 
a  wealthy  or  powerful  friend  to  aid  him.  At  last  the  friend 
was  found ;  and  as  Frobisher  sailed  down  the  Thames  with 
three  little  ships  (1576),  Queen  Elizabeth  waved  a  friendly 
farewell.  One  of  the  vessels  went  down  in  a  storm  at  sea, 
while  the  crew  of  another  became  frightened  and  turned 
their  prows  toward  home.  But  Frobisher  sailed  fearlessly 
on.  He  landed  somewhere  north  of  Labrador,  and  took 
possession  of  the  country  for  Elizabeth.  In  spite  of  his 
perseverance,  Frobisher  failed  to  find  the  passage  to  China. 
He  carried  home  an  Indian  and  some  worthless  stones 
which  he  believed  to  contain  gold ;  but  his  voyage  was  a 
failure. 

Drake  Sailing  Around  the  World.  —  Meanwhile  Francis 
Drake  (157  7-1 5 80)  sailed  around  the  end  of  South  America 
and  up  along  the  west  coast,  plundering  Spanish  settle- 
ments and  taking  their  ships  laden  with  immense  treasures 

360 


THE   ENGLISH   SETTLEMENT   OF   AMERICA     361 


of  gold  and  silver  ore.  Drake  explored  the  west  coast  of 
what  is  now  the  United  States  as  far  as  Oregon,  and  sailed 
for  home  by  way  of  Asia  and  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Such  voyages  fired  men's  minds  with  dreams  of  gold  and 
boundless  plunder,  but  they  did  not  encourage  any  one  to 
settle  and  build  up  trading  colonies  in  America. 

Trying  to  Found  a  Colony.  —  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert 
and  his  half  brother,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  made  up  their 
minds  to  plant  an  Eng- 
lish colony  in  America. 
They  believed  that  col- 
onies would  pay  better 
than  the  aimless  search- 
ing for  gold,  for  they 
would  open  up  trade  with 
the  Indians,  and  develop 
agriculture  in  America; 
and  above  all,  the  colo- 
nies would  be  a  fine  mar- 
ket for  English  goods. 
So  they  obtained  from 
Elizabeth  a  grant  of  land, 
and  the  right  for  their 
colony  to  rule  itself. 
With  a  fleet,  fitted  out  largely  at  their  own  expense,  they 
set  out  for  the  New  World.  One  ship  was  lost  at  sea. 
After  fighting  a  battle  with  the  Spaniards  they  returned 
to  England  without  success.  A  second  attempt  also  failed, 
and  Sir  Humphrey's  tiny  ship  went  down  at  sea. 

Raleigh's  Lost  Colony.  —  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who  had 
not  sailed  on  the  second  trip,  had  now  risen  to  great  favor 
with  Queen  Elizabeth.  He  was  not  the  man  to  give  up 
easily,  and  his  heart  was  set  upon  planting  a  colony  in 


Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 


362    DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN   EUROPE 

America.  At  great  expense,  he  sent  several  expeditions 
to  found  a  settlement.  A  little  company  of  about  a  hun- 
dred men  and  women  was  landed  on  Roanoke  Island  on 
the  coast  of  what  we  now  call  North  Carolina.  The  colony 
was  short  of  food,  and  soon  were  forced  to  send  their  only 
ship  home  to  England,  hoping  for  a  speedy  return.     But 


The  Lost  Colony. 


these  were  the  days  of  the  Armada,  and  all  the  strength 
and  effort  of  Englishmen  were  being  put  forth  to  sink  the 
great  Spanish  fleet.  Thus  the  little  colony  was  neglected, 
and  when  a  few  years  later  a  tardy  ship  came  to  Roanoke, 
with  food  and  supplies,  the  settlers  had  disappeared. 
What  became  of  them  nobody  knows. 

Pointing  the  Way.  —  Sir  Walter  had  now  spent  a  fortune 
of  nearly  a  million  dollars,  trying  to  start  an  English  nation 


THE   ENGLISH   SETTLEMENT   OF   AMERICA      363 


in  America,  and  had  failed.  He  concluded  that  the  cost 
of  such  an  undertaking  was  greater  than  one  man  could 
bear.  So  he  turned  his  charter  over  to  a  trading  company 
of  London  merchants.  Raleigh  had  failed,  but  he  had 
pointed  out  the  way  and  had  shown  what  the  difficulties 
were.  Now  that  the  Spaniards  were  driven  from  the  sea, 
and  supplies  could  be  safely  sent  from  home,  the  way  was 
clear  to  plant  English  colonies  in 
the  New  World  and  to  protect 
them  there. 

The  London  Company.  —  The 
London  Company  fitted  out  a 
little  fleet,  under  Captain  New- 
port, and  started  it  for  Virginia, 
bearing  about  a  hundred  colo- 
nists (1606) .  The  voyage  was  a 
long  one,  and  their  provisions 
were  nearly  used  up  before  they 
arrived.  There  was  trouble 
among  the  men;  and  before 
America  was  reached,  they  had 
arrested  and  bound  in  chains  a  certain  John  Smith,  who 
later  proved  to  be  the  wisest  of  them  all. 

Jamestown  Founded.  —  The  ships  entered  Chesapeake 
bay  and  sailed  up  a  river,  which  they  named  the  James 
in  honor  of  the  King.  After  fighting  with  one  Indian  tribe 
and  smoking  the  pipe  of  peace  with  another,  the  company 
landed  and  decided  to  build  their  settlement  upon  a  penin- 
sula, which  they  called  Jamestown,  about  fifty  miles  up  the 
river. 

The  Outlook  Dark.  —  The  site  for  their  settlement  was 
not  wisely  chosen,  for  it  was  low  and  swampy  and  might 
breed  disease.     However,  axes  were  soon  busy  felling  forest 


John  Smith. 


364    DAWN   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  IN  EUROPE 

trees  to  build  homes  and  a  fort.  But  the  workers  were 
few.  There  were  only  four  carpenters  and  twelve  laborers, 
while  half  of  the  entire  company  were  "  gentlemen  "  who 
were  unused  to  work  and  who  expected  to  fill  their  pockets 


The  Ruins  of  Jamestown. 

with  gold  quickly  and  return  to  England.  The  ship  soon 
sailed  back  home,  leaviug  the  colony  short  of  supplies. 
John  Smith  saved  the  settlers  from  starving  by  making  a 
rule  that  he  who  would  not  work  should  not  eat.  The  colony 
became  the  first  permanent  English  settlement  in  America. 


QUESTIONS 

I.  Tell  about  Frobisher's  voyage  and  its  results.  2.  Who  was 
Drake  and  what  great  voyage  did  he  make?  3.  Tell  about  Sir 
Humphrey  Gilbert.  4-  What  was  the  "Lost  Colony"?  5.  Why 
was  it  lost  ?  6.  Who  was  John  Smith  and  what  did  he  accomplish  ? 
7.  What  do  you  think  would  have  happened  to  the  Jamestown  colony 
without  Smith  ? 


CHAPTER   XXXII 
CONCLUSION 

Spain's  Outlook  in  America.  —  The  Spanish  were  earliest 
upon  our  shores,  but  they  wasted  their  time  and  resources 
in  wild  searches  for  gold,  until  they  lost  control  of  the  sea. 
They  did  not  know  the  importance  of  honest  labor,  nor  did 
they  appreciate  the  value  of  thinking  men  in  politics  or  re- 
ligion. They  made  a  mistake  in  denying  liberty  of  thought 
to  their  people.  Every  prosperous  nation  must  have 
workers  and  thinkers,  but  Spain  had  neither.  The  Spanish 
rulers  and  nobles  claimed  to  have  Teutonic  blood  in  their 
veins,  but  they  had  lost  the  spirit  of  liberty  and  all  other 
virtues  of  the  Teutons.  Since  they  misunderstood  their 
own  people  and  misgoverned  their  own  country,  it  is  no 
wonder  they  failed  in  the  struggle  for  possession  of  America. 

The  French  as  Builders.  —  The  French  had  seized  the 
two  gateways  to  North  America  by  taking  hold  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  the  Mississippi.  They  held  the  best  por- 
tions of  the  continent,  and  had  secured  the  friendship  of 
all  the  Indian  tribes  save  the  Iroquois.  But  they  had 
scattered  widely  in  search  of  furs  instead  of  settling  down  to 
industrious  labor  and  home-making.  Since  they  were  gov- 
erned at  home  by  an  absolute  king,  the  colonists  had  no 
freedom  or  voice  in  their  laws.  The  governors  of  Canada 
were  chosen  in  Paris,  and  there,  too,  the  laws  were  made ; 
so  there  was  no  inducement  for  men  of  strong  mind  and 
heart  to  settle  in  Canada.  France,  like  Spain,  robbed 
herself  of  her  best  workers  and  thinkers,  when  the  king 
persecuted  and  drove  away  the  Huguenots. 

365 


366    DAWN   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY   IN   EUROPE 

The  French  have  much  more  of  the  Teutonic  blood  than 
the  Spaniards,  but  at  the  time  of  settling  America,  they 
had  strayed  far  from  the  spirit  of  their  Teutonic  forefathers. 
They  put  up  a  stout  fight  for  the  possession  of  our  country, 
but  we  shall  see  them  fail  before  the  English,  who  were 
best  fitted  to  build  up  a  great  nation  in  America. 

The  Dutch  Prefer  English  Liberty.  —  The  Dutch  at 
New  Amsterdam  became  dissatisfied  with  the  liberties 
allowed  them.  They  saw  the  people  of  New  England  en- 
joying great  freedom  and  shaping  their  own  affairs;  and 
when  the  opportunity  came,  the  Dutch  were  glad  to  be- 
come an  English  colony,  and  New  Amsterdam  was  renamed 
New  York. 

The  Coming  of  the  English.  —  The  English  were  late 
in  getting  a  foothold  upon  our  shores.  The  French  had 
seized  upon  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  Great  Lake  region,  and 
the  vast  Mississippi  valley.  The  Spanish  were  intrenched 
in  Florida.  Thus  the  English  were  confined  to  the  narrow 
Atlantic  coast  plains.  The  English  knew  best  how  to 
plant  colonies,  so  it  was  not  long  before  their  settlements 
were  scattered  along  the  coast  from  Maine  to  Florida.  It 
was  fortunate  that  they  were  hemmed  in  as  they  were,  for 
they  settled  more  thickly  and  became  strong  and  self- 
reliant.  They  were  not  drawn  away  from  tilling  the  soil 
by  trailing  through  the  forests  for  furs,  as  did  the  French, 
nor  by  searching  for  gold,  like  the  Spanish.  In  order  to 
clear  the  forests  and  raise  crops,  the  English  drove  away 
the  Indians.  They  brought  with  them  their  wives  and 
famiHes,  for  they  meant  to  build  permanent  homes  here. 
They  brought  also  their  ideas  of  freedom,  of  having  a  voice 
in  their  own  affairs,  and  of  choosing  their  own  religion. 
Thus  the  English  were  laying  a  good  foundation  for  a  free, 
happy,    and    prosperous    colonial    empire.     America  was 


CONCLUSION  367 

destined  for  the  nation  who  knew  best  how  to  settle  the 
wilderness,  to  build  it  up,  and  to  rule  over  it;  and 
that  nation  proved  to  be  the  Teutonic  Anglo-Saxons. 

QUESTIONS 

Review 

1.   Locate  the  territory  claimed  by  Spain,  England,  France,  Holland 

2.  Locate  the  settlements  made  by  Spain,  England,  France,  Holland. 

3.  Tell  about  the  government  in  the  settlements  of  Spain,  England, 
France,  Holland.  4.  Tell  about  the  religion  in  the  settlements  of 
Spain,  England,  France,  Holland.  5.  Why  will  Spain  fail  to  get 
control  of  all  North  America ?  6.  Why  will  France  fail?  7.  Why 
will  England  become  the  controlling  nation  over  here?  8.  Then 
what  ideas  of  government  will  become  established?  9.  What  will 
keep  America  from  ever  becoming  really  a  part  of  England  ?  10. 
What  will  be  the  government  of  America  ?  11.  Trace  the  Teutonic 
characteristics  in  America.     12.  Show  how  it  is  a  land  for  all  people. 


INDEX 


Abbey,  89,  90,  91. 

Abbot,  88. 

Acre,  213. 

.^tius,  98,  99. 

Africa,  271,  278. 

Alaric,  62-66. 

Alexandria,  44. 

Alexis,  Emperor,  205. 

Alfred,  the  Great,  123-132. 

Alps,  Hannibal  crosses,  23. 

Alva,  Duke  of,  321-329. 

America,  2,  301 ;  discovery  of,  292. 

Americus  Vespuccius,  298,  299. 

Amsterdam,  New,  356. 

Angles,  101-115. 

Anglo-Saxon,  109,  116-132. 

Antioch,  212,  213. 

Appian  Way,  72,  73. 

Apprentice,  180. 

Aqueducts,  45. 

Arabia,  226. 

Arabic  numerals,  196,  197. 

Arabs,  188-199,  202. 

Aragon,  258-263. 

Arches,  Roman,  36,  41.      < 

Arena,  47,  48. 

Armada,  The  Invincible,  341-345. 

Asia  Minor,  27. 

Athens,  44,  57,  58. 

Augustine,  108. 

Augustine,  St.,  317. 

Augustus,  Caesar,  3,  27. 

Australia,  2. 

Austria,  27. 

Azores,  276. 

Bacon,  Roger,  226. 
Bahamas,  293. 
Balboa,  309,  310. 
Baltic  Sea,  5,  11-12. 
Banquets,  155-156. 
Barbarians,  German,  1,  80. 
Barbarossa,  Frederick,  222. 
Baths,  Roman,  44. 
Beggars  of  the  Sea,  329,  330,  334. 
2B 


Belgium,  136,  345,  346. 

Benedict,  St.,  87,  88. 

Bertha,  Queen,  108. 

Bishop,  Roman,  79-81. 

Block  books,  323,  324. 

Books,  ancient  (manuscript),  Roman,  42, 

92,  93- 
Borneo,  268. 
Brazil,  299. 
Brill,  334. 
Britons,  26. 
Bulgaria,  208. 
Burgundians,  70,  77. 

Cabot,  John,  297,  298. 

Cabot,  Sebastian,  297,  298. 

Caesar,  Julius,  5,  26,  27. 

Caesar  Augustus,  2,  27. 

Calicut,  226,  268. 

California,  281. 

Califs,  191. 

Canary  Islands,  276,  287,  288. 

Canterbury,  122,  225. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  277,  283,  284,  305. 

Capetian,  232. 

Cape  Verde  Islands,  283. 

Carthage,  21-23. 

Cartier  Jacques,  348-350. 

Castile,  258-263. 

Castles,  147-161. 

Cathay  (China),  225,  226,  264,  -66,  275, 

305. 
Catholic  Church,  318-327. 
Charlemagne,  135-138. 
Charles  the  Fat,  94. 
China  (Cathay),  225,  226,  264,  266,  275, 

305. 
Chippenham,  127. 
Chivalry,  161. 

Christianity,  34;    persecution  of,  34-36. 
Church,  Christian,  66,  77-80. 
Cicero,  52. 
Cipango,  see  Japan. 
Circus,  The  Great,  46. 
City  of  Seven  Hills  (Rome),  ax. 

369 


37o 


INDEX 


Clergy,  230. 

Clerics,  172. 

Clermont,  Council  of,  205. 

Clovis,  134,  135. 

Coliseum,  48,  49. 

Columbus,    Bartholomew,    2,    278-283, 

284. 
Columbus,  Christopher,  278-296. 
Combat,  160. 
Commerce,   94,   166,   174-186;    British, 

102  ;  with  East,  265. 
Compass,  225,  273,  289,  290. 
Conrad  III,  Emperor,  221. 
Constantine,  36,  37,  59,  60. 
Constantinople,  59,  60,  66,  209. 
Cordova,  193-195,  253,  283,  284. 
Cortes,  257. 

Cortez,  Hernando,  307-309. 
Council  of  Blood,  332. 
Crafts,  179. 
Criminals,  171. 
Crossbow,  226. 
Crusades,  154,  201-231. 

Da  Gama,  Vasco,  295,  296,  299,  300. 

Danegeld,  244. 

Danes,  94,  1 16-132. 

Danube  River,  28,  58,  60. 

Dark  Ages,  75,  144. 

Denmark,  103. 

De  Soto,  Ferdinand,  314-316. 

Diaz,  Bartholomew,  277. 

Domesday  Book,  244. 

Donjon,  149. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  360,  361. 

Dutch,  1. 

Edward  the  Saint  (Confessor),  240. 

Egypt,  27,  192,  269. 

Elizabeth,  Queen,  340,  360,  361. 

Emperor,  Roman,  77. 

England,  271,  297. 

Erasmus,  322-323. 

Euphrates  River,  24,  28. 

Fairs,  185,  186. 

Falcon,  158. 

Farming,  German,  9;    in  Middle  Ages, 

165,  166. 
Ferdinand,  King,  258-263,  283-286. 
Feud,  Blood,  83. 
Feudalism,  139-145,  242. 
Fief,  141. 


Fines,  83,  84. 

Florida,  314. 

Folkmoot,  120. 

France,  27,  136,  232-238. 

Franks,  134-138. 

French  language,  82,  83. 

Frobisher,  Martin,  340,  358-360. 

Gaiseric,  68. 

Gama,  Vasco  da,  295,  296,  299,  300. 

Gaul,  26,  70. 

Gauls,  135. 

Genoa,  265,  279,  295. 

Germans  (Teutons),  1-19,  136;  arms, 
15;  Christianized,  16;  commerce,  16; 
dress,  6 ;  good  qualities  of,  19 ;  govern- 
ment of,  10;  language,  324;  priests, 
12;  religion,  11-12;  sacred  grove,  11; 
warriors,  12-16;    women,  6,  10-n. 

Gibbon,  the  historian,  34. 

Gibraltar,  68. 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey,  46-49. 

Godfrey  at  Jerusalem  211-223. 

Gold  Coast,  276. 

Good  Hope,  Cape  of,  277,  283,  284,  305. 

Goths,  53,  57-75,  77,  i35,  193,  222; 
accept  Christianity,  59. 

Granada,  260-263,  286. 

Great  Charter,  247,  248. 

Greece,  24,  27,  62. 

Greek,  art,  24,  191-192 ;  language,  44, 
74,  322,  323. 

Gregory,  107. 

Guilds,  179-184. 

Guinea,  Gulf  of,  276,  280,  281. 

Gunpowder,  161,  226. 

Gutenberg,  John,  324. 

Guthrum,  127,  128. 

Hannibal,  22-23. 

Harlem,  335. 

Harold,  King  of  England,  240. 

Hastings,  Battle  of,  241. 

Hawking,  156-158. 

Hawkins,  Sir  John,  340. 

Hengist  and  Horsa,  101. 

Henry  II  of  England,  234. 

Henry  VII  of  England,  297. 

Henry,  Prince,  the  Navigator,  271-279. 

Heretics,  259,  323. 

Holiday,  46,  47. 

Holland,  346. 

Holy  Land,  154. 


INDEX 


371 


House  of  Commons,  251. 
House  of  Lords,  251. 
Howard,  Lord,  343-345- 
Hudson,  Henry,  356-358. 
Huns,  57. 

Inca,  312-314- 

Indian  Ocean,  267. 

Indians,  American,  2. 

Inquisition,  Spanish,  259-260,  323. 

Iron,  7. 

Isabella,  Queen,  257-263,  283-286. 

Italian  language,  82,  83. 

Italy,  27. 

Jackstaff,  273. 

Japan,  264,  275. 

Jerusalem,  154,  iQi,  2QI- 

Jesuits,  327,  351. 

Jews,  iQ3- 

John,  King  of  England,  234. 

John,  King  of  Portugal,  277,  282,  283. 

Joppa,  213. 

Jury,  Trial  by,  247. 

Jutes,  102. 

King,  power  of,  229,  230. 
Knights,  152-161,  206-231. 
Koran,  189,  190. 


Labrador,  297. 

La  Salle,  352-355- 

Latin  language,  74,  81,  82. 

Latitude,  273. 

Law,   Barbarian,   83,   84;    Roman,   85; 

Teutonic,  84. 
Leo  III,  Pope,  136,  137- 
Leyden,  335,  338. 
Lisbon,  279,  294. 
Lombards,  70,  77. 

London,  104,  128,  295;  Company,  363- 
Louis  the  Fighter,  233,  234. 
Louis  VII  of  France,  221. 
Luther,  Martin,  325,  326. 

Magellan,  Ferdinand,  300-305;    Straits 
of,  302.  .0 

Magna  Carta  (Great  Charter),  247,  248. 
Manendez,  Pedro,  316,  3*7« 
Manor,  163. 

Manuscript  books  (ancient),  92,  93- 
Marco  Polo,  226,  264-269,  275. 
Mark,  7. 


Markets,  185,  186. 

Master  workmen,  180. 

Mecca,  188-191. 

Mediterranean,  21,  58,  224. 

Merchants  of  the  Middle  Ages,  183-186. 

Mexico,  282,  308,  309- 

Migration,  German,  9. 

Mississippi  River,  316. 

Model  Parliament,  250. 

Mohammed,  187-190. 

Mohammedans,  188-199- 

Moluccas  (Spice  Islands),  268,  275,  305- 

Monasteries,  87-97,  109,  122. 

Money,  176-177. 

Monks,  87-97- 

Montezuma,   King  of  the  Aztecs,   308, 

309- 
Montreal,  349,  350. 
Moors,  188-199,  222,  253-263. 
Moriscoes,  346. 
Mosaics,  68. 
Mosul,  226. 
Mount  of  Olives,  214,  217. 

Nero,  36,  49,  54- 

Nerthus,  n-12. 

Netherlands,  136,  3  20-347- 

Newfoundland,  297. 

New  France,  350. 

New  Testament,  109. 

Nicea,  210,  212. 

Noble,  141-145- 

Normandy,  233,  239. 

Northmen  (Vikings),  94,    139,   140,  232 

North  Star,  273. 

Norway,  1. 

Nunneries,  87. 


Odin,  n,  66,  99,  106,  108. 
Omar,  191. 
Orinoco  River,  295. 

Pacific  Ocean,  310. 
Page,  training  of  a,  150. 
Palos,  284,  287,  294. 
Panama,  311. 
Papyrus,  42. 
Paris,  232,  295. 
Parliament,  251. 
Peking,  297. 
Perez,  284. 
Persia,  226. 
Persian  gulf,  269. 


372 


INDEX 


Peru,  312-314. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  203-210. 

Petrarch,  321,  322. 

Philip  Augustus,  234. 

Philip  II  of  France,  222. 

Philip  II  of  Spain,  320-347. 

Picts,  98. 

Pilgrims,  201-205. 

Pizarro,  310-314. 

Polo,  Marco,  226,  264-269,  275. 

Pompey,  25-26. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  313,  314. 

Pope,  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  318-325. 

Portugal,  279. 

Portuguese,  82,  83,  271-278. 

Printing,  invention  of,  324. 

Protestantism,  318-327. 

Pyrenees,  193. 

Quebec,  351. 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  361-363. 

Red  Sea,  269. 

Revival  of  Learning,  322-327. 

Rhine  River,  3,  28,  67,  70. 

Richard  the  Lion-hearted,  222. 

Roads,  Roman,  29. 

Robber  barons,  175. 

Roderick,  253. 

Rolf  (Rollo),  239. 

Roman,  amphitheaters,  46-50;  archi- 
tecture, 30-41 ;  art,  39-41 ;  books,  42  : 
cities,  32-34;  commerce,  32;  educa- 
tion, 43;  irrigation,  32;  law,  85,  237; 
learning,  39-41 ;  monuments,  41 ; 
mosaics,  40,  41 ;  roads,  29 ;  wall, 
28,  29. 

Romans,  2. 

Rome,  3,  4,  21-37,  44;  becomes  Chris- 
tian, 36,  37  ;  fall  of,  62-75. 

Sahara,  28,  264. 

St.  Augustine,  317. 

St.  Benedict,  87,  88. 

St.  Louis,  King  of  France,  233,  234. 

St.  Peter's,  136. 

Sanitation  in  Middle  Ages,  170,  171. 

Saracens,  201-231. 

Sargasso  Sea,  290. 

Saxons  (English),  98-115,  135,  136. 

Schools,  Monastic,  92;  moorish,  196. 

Scotland,  271. 

Scots,  98. 


Sea,  Black,  58;  Mediterranean,  21,  58, 
224;  North,  99;  of  Darkness,  264, 
269,  288. 

Serfs  (villains),  112,  172,  230. 

Seville,  284. 

Ships,  Roman,  21-22;  Carthaginian, 
21-22. 

Simon,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  203. 

Simon  de  Montfort,  249,  250. 

Slaves,  Teutons,  66;  trade,  167;  Ger- 
man, 6  ;   Roman,  45,  50-52. 

Smith,  John,  363,  364. 

Soldiers,  German,  52,  53. 

South  Africa,  2. 

Spain,  27,  67,  253-263;  language,  82, 
83. 

Spaniards  in  America,  306-317. 

Spice  Islands  (Moluccas),  268,  275, 
305. 

Squire,  training  of,  150,  151. 

Stilicho,  64. 

Suevi,  70. 

Sumatra,  267. 

Sweden,  1. 

Switzerland,  27. 

Sylvester,  Pope,  320. 

Syria,  27,  213,  226. 

Taxes,  Roman,  54 ;  monastic,  96. 

Teutons,  see  Germans,  1-19,  76. 

Thames  River,  126,  127. 

Third  estate,  229. 

Thor,  106,  108. 

Tiber  River,  21,  72. 

Tolls,  141,  175,  176. 

Toscanelli,  281,  288. 

Totilo,  94. 

Tournament,  158. 

Towns  in  the  Middle  Ages,  177. 

Truce  of  God,  145. 

Turkey,  27. 

Turks,  201-231. 

Tyre,  213. 

Urban  II,  Pope,  203-207. 

Varus,  3. 

Vandals,  68-70. 

Van  der  Werf,  337. 

Vassals,  141-145. 

Vatican,  319. 

Venice,  265,  267,  268. 

Vespuccius,  Americus,  298,  299. 


INDEX 


373 


Vikings  (Northmen),  94,  1 16-132. 
Villains  (serfs),  112,  172,  230. 
Villas,  Roman,  70,  106. 
Vortigern,  200. 

Walter  the  Penniless,  208-211. 
Wedmore,  Treaty  of,  127. 
Welsh,  103. 


Wessex,  114,  122. 

West  Indies,  281. 

William  the  Conqueror,  230-245. 

William  the  Silent,   Prince  of  Orange. 

332-338. 
Witan,  114. 

Yoke  of  Rome,  3. 


T 


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